arriving there was immediately ordered to join an exploring expedition to Katanga. The force consisted of 350 regular soldiers, a Krupp gun, and porters. While on the road to Katanga they were attacked by Tippo Tib's slave raiders, under the command of his son Sefu. After the defeat of Sefu, a general rising of the Mahometans and the federation of all the branches of Arab slave traders of the Upper Congo and its tributaries occurred. The war which ensued resulted in the complete overthrow of the Arab slave trade in equatorial Africa west of Tanganyika. After the war Captain Hinde surveyed the unexplored parts of the Lualaba and Lukunga, between Kasongo and M'Bulli, connecting the surveys of Joseph Thomson with those of Stanley and his successors. In these regions the extreme fertility of the soil is noticeable. Owing to the intense heat, great moisture, and alluvial soil, all forms of vegetable life grow with an incredible rapidity. This vast tract of country is intersected by water ways navigable by steamers for some thousands of miles, and, as can be realised, might easily be exploited by Europeans.

As a result of the Arab overthrow, the traffic which formerly went down to Zanzibar from Nyangué and the Lualaba now follows the Congo to Stanley Pool and the Atlantic. The whole Congo basin must be specially adapted for coffee growing, as in every part of the forest wild coffee, of excellent quality, is abundant. While waiting for the coffee plantations to yield, rubber-which is found everywhere, and which only requires collecting-would be an important source of wealth.

4. The Progress of the Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar Expedition. By ARTHUR MONTEFIORE, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

After dealing with the objects and methods of the expedition, Mr. Montefiore summarised the advantages of Franz Josef Land as the selected base under the following heads :-(1) Accessibility in any ordinary year; (2) northward prolongation of the land; (3) abundance of animal food; (4) the great importance of having a base on land; (5) the desirability of advancing into the unknown as far as possible by land; (6) the opportunity afforded by Franz Josef Land of erecting depôts until the 83rd parallel, at least, had been reached.

The second portion of the paper dealt with the progress of the expedition. Sailing from London on July 11, 1894, on board the Windward,' which had been purchased by Mr. Harmsworth for arctic work, the expedition arrived at Arkhangel, where it took on board extra supplies in the way of furs, provender, and Russian ponies, and whence it sailed on August 5. The ship next called at Habarova, on Yugorski Schar, for the Siberian dogs to be employed in sledging. From this point all definite information had, until a few days previously, ceased. But well credited tidings came from the walrus hunters in Barents Sea, stating that the 'Windward' had been sighted in the ice about the middle of August, and again towards the end of that month, steaming up an open lead.

The third portion of the paper described the events of the year which had come and gone since any news had been received. The arrival of the steam yacht 'Windward' at Vardo on September 10, 1895, had enabled the author to give the members of the British Association a short résumé of the doings of the expedition.

It appeared, then, that the Windward' safely made the south coast of Franz Josef Land on September 7; that on the 10th the heavy labour of discharging the cargo was begun; and that on the 12th the ship was frozen in for the winter. This, however, did not prevent the successful landing of the immense quantity of stores and general equipment, nor the erection of Russian loghouses, folding sheds, observatory, stables, kennels, &c.

During the winter, throughout which scientific observations were regularly made, Mr. Jackson and his colleagues shot no fewer than sixty polar bears for the sustenance of the party. Fresh meat was considered essential to their well-being and as a preventive of scurvy.

The sun returned February 23, 1895, and on March 10 Mr. Jackson began his

northward journey. He made two double marches with sledges well laden and established a depot 81° 20′ N. Returning to his base for more provisions, he found that the crew, who had wintered on the ship, had been attacked with scurvy. He did everything that could be done and got the ship under weigh on her homeward journey by July 3. When the ship left, Mr. Jackson was about to make a third march inland, and on this occasion he intended to utilise his boats.

The return journey of the Windward' was a marvellous instance of arctic navigation. For sixty-five days she battled with the heavy floe-ice, and, having consumed nearly all her coals, anything combustible on board was resorted to. The constant labour and exposure told heavily on the crew, whose behaviour was above praise. At last-with the loss of three men-she broke out of the ice on September 6, and safely made the port of Vardo on the 10th.

Thus it will be seen that all the expectations aroused on behalf of the expedi tion had, up to date, been fulfilled. Franz Josef Land had been successfully made; fresh food had been plentiful; the base was secure; advance northward had been easy and depots were already in existence as far as 81° 20′; and, finally, the exploring party, with Mr. Jackson at their head, were in sound health and the best spirits.

5. The Struggle for Existence under Arctic Conditions.
By A. TREVOR BATTYE.

6. The Port of the Upper Nile in relation to the Highways of Foreign Trade. By JAMES TURNBULL PLAYFAIR HEATLEY.

To introduce his paper and indicate its aim, Mr. Heatley cites the views of Sir Charles Wilson from his address at Bath in 1888 on the higher aims of the Science of Commercial Geography.

He proposes the introduction of the term 'nodality' for a commercial centre on a through line of trade, in accordance with a suggestion of Mr. Mackinder's in 1889.

He then discusses the relative merits of Alexandria, Sawākin (with Sheikh Barud), Massawa, Mombasa, Tanga, and Chinde, as ports with their respective trade routes, and states the case for Akik.

He shows that the Port of Akik is on the best bay of the Red Sea, and that a line of railway from Akik to Khartum by way of Goz Rejeb is the best route to bring Khartum and the Upper Nile into commercial relations with the maritime highways of trade. As the merits of different routes are decided by the importance of the nodalities which feed the highway of trade, he points out that the trade of the Habab and the Hagar districts will come to Akik. The important district of Tokar has been described as the granary of the Eastern Sudan, and is recognised as its key strategically. Here will also come the trade of the Beni Amr tribes from the valleys of the Anseba and the Baraka. At Filik there is the fertile district of the Gash. From Filik a line of some 50 miles to Kasala will tap the provinces of Tākā, Gadarif, Galabat, and Senaar.

He points out that as soon as the line is made to Goz Rejeb, the Port of Ak is in direct communication with the Upper Nile from June to September, during which time the Atbara and the Nile at the Sixth Cataract are navigable.

From Akik to Goz Rejeb the distance is from 260 to 280 miles; the highest part of it is 1,650 feet, with easy grading and no difficulties. To Goz Rejeb as a nodality, where routes meet from all parts, the trade of the Upper Nile, of Darfur and Dongola, can come by ship and caravan. But the importance conmercially and strategically of Khartum demands the line from Goz Rejeb, s distance of some 180 miles.

From Khartum the Nile, with some of its tributaries, is navigable for some 1,500 to 1,700 miles. The Blue Nile is navigable for 350 miles; the Sobat for 150 to 300 miles; the Bahr el Ghazal for 400 miles; the Bahr el Arab for 500

miles. The Nile itself-the Bahr el Abyad and the Bahr el Jebel-is navigable from Khartum to Kiri, a distance of 1,068 miles.

From Kiri, which is a fine district, and its Nile port, an important nodality, a line of some 50 miles to the mouth of the Unyama will bring the trade by ship from the lands in the basin of the Bahr el Jebel, the Victoria Nile, the Albert Lake, and the Albert Nile.

From the mouth of the Unyama a line will be made up the valley for some 50 miles to Fatiko, which is a fine district, and from Fatiko to Fauvera, some 70 to 80 miles, whence the Victoria Nile is navigable to Urondogani, some 160 to 180 miles.

Thus there is a feasible highway of trade from Usoga, Unyoro, and Uganda, and most of Kitara to Akik, as the Port of the Upper Nile.

7. Exploration in the Japanese Alps, 1891-94. By the Rev. WALTER WESTON, M.A., F.R.G.S.

The two chief mountain systems of Japan, running north-east and south-west respectively, meet in the centre of Hondo (the main island). Here, where the country attains its greatest width, the peaks rise to the loftiest heights, and exhibit the grandest characteristics in the range of the 'Japanese Alps.' The distant view resembles that of the Sierra Nevada of Spain, to which these mountains correspond in latitude and elevation. The range rises from the Sea of Japan, about 37° N. latitude, and extends nearly 100 miles southwards, throwing off spurs east and west. Some of the highest peaks are volcanic, others are granite; or, as in the case of Yarigatake, the highest (10,500 feet), hard brecciated porphyry.

Owing to its position, the chain forms a barrier to the Siberian winds after their passage over the moist atmosphere of the Japan Sea, and causes an extraordinary snowfall in the winter, sometimes capable of burying whole villages, on the west side, whilst the east at the same time is comparatively free from snow.

No traces of glacial action have been found, but snow lies in summer as low as 7,000 feet in various places.

Remarkable solfataras are found on some of the volcanic peaks, notably on Tateyama, in the north.

At the foot of other mountains mineral springs (usually sulphur or chaly beate) attract the peasantry by their medicinal properties. In some of these baths people are said to stay for a month at a time, sitting with a heavy stone on the lap to prevent them from floating in their sleep.

Several remarkable silver and copper mines have been found on the west side of the range. Near Hirayu, at a height of 7,000 feet, work is carried on all the year round, the annual output of copper being said to reach 140,000 lb., and that of silver 2,500 lb.

The flora is remarkable both for variety and extent.

Alpine plants are found near the summits, whilst lower down the flanks of the chain show many English wild flowers side by side with our favourite ornamental plants, in addition to others which are quite strangers to us.

Magnificent lilies (auratum, tigrinum, &c.), Lychnis grandiflora, Hydrangeas, Iris, &c., give gorgeous colouring to the lower slopes. Stately cypress forests abound, and on the west side the Japanese yew, celebrated for the beauty of its red-grained timber, is found, usually, however, as a scattered shrub. The mulberry tree is extensively grown on the east and west sides, the silkworm culture being a very widespread industry.

The fauna includes black bears, boars, chamois, badgers, hares (which turn white in winter), flying squirrels, &c.

The writer has also met with the golden eagle, ptarmigan, black-and-white crow, and a nightingale with a very sweet full note.

The giant salamander has occasionally been found, especially in the southwest of the range.

The clear mountain streams abound in trout.

Although travel in these wild regions is very rough, still the people dwelling on the outskirts of the main chain are kind, polite, and hospitable to a degree. Many of their customs and superstitions are very curious. They hold a strong belief in the power of foxes, badgers, wasps, &c., to 'possess' human beings, of which the writer has had odd personal experiences.

In times of drought strange ceremonies, sometimes accompanied by sacrifices, are performed on some of the mountain tops with the object of obtaining rain. Ontake, an extinct volcano to the south of the range, 10,000 feet high, is, next to Fujisan, the loftiest sacred mountain in Japan. Pilgrims visit it every summer to practise a sort of hypnotic trance called kami-oroshi, or bringing down the gods.' Through the intervention of a skilled 'medium' communication is said to be held with the spirits of departed heroes, &c. Oracular replies are given to questions dealing with the prospects of future health, business, weather, &c. It is a fast dying-out survival of a curious Far Eastern presentment of the Delphic Oracle.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

The following Report and Papers were read :

1. Report on Explorations in South Arabia. See Reports, p. 491.

2. Formosa. By JOHN DODD.

This paper gives an account of observations and explorations in the island of Formosa made by the author during his residence there from 1864 to 1890. After referring to the work of British naval officers, consular officers, commissioners of Chinese customs, and others, and giving a general geographical description of the island and its commerce, the paper goes on to discuss the probable origin of the aboriginal tribes occupying the highest mountain districts. The mode of life of the savage inhabitants is described their dress, weapons, methods of hunting, marriage customs, &c.—and special reference is made to the practice of head-hunting, whether indulged in from motives of revenge or as a pastime merely. The paper next deals with the Pepawhano, or descendants of the savages of the plains, their spoliation by Chinese immigrants, and the work of the Dutch missionaries amongst them. In the concluding section the author refers to the colonisation of parts of Formosa by immigrants from Fokien, and to the Hakka invasion of the hill districts. Some account is given of the opening up of foreign trade, especially in camphor, coal, and tea, and an estimate is formed of the commercial resources of Formosa and of the prospects of their development.

3. Russian Possessions in Central Asia. By Dr. A. MARKOFF.

A comprehensive survey of Russia's Central Asian possessions is a task of great difficulty for anyone who is not a Russian, on account of the Russian language. An attempt is here made to give reliable data for a geographical description of this part of the world, where the three largest empires meet.

The Russian possessions are: (1) The Transcaspian district, parcelled up into the provinces of Manghishlak, Krasnovodsk, Askhabad, Tejen, Merv; (2) Turkestan with Samarkand, Syr Darya, and Fergana; (3) the Khanat of Khiva; and (4) Bokhara.

The author described the different districts and their boundaries; the population, Russian, Persian, Tartar, Armenian, and others; industries, such as fishing, agriculture, gardening, the cultivation of silk, cotton, and grapes; stock-breeding, mining, and commerce.

The soil and climatic conditions of Turkestan were described. Turkestan is gradually losing its vegetation and drying up. Great changes in Russian commerce

have taken place under the Minister of Finance, de Witte. Railways being acquired by the State, all freights and traffic rates generally reduced. Means of communication are increased and improved. Prospects for English trade in Central Asia and Russia were discussed. English-made goods enjoy a reputation in Russia of being superior to those of French and German manufacturers. English commerce has not hitherto had a fair share of the plums in Russia's commercial pie. No reason to be seen why English houses should not share in the markets where French and German commerce finds such ready outlets.

4. The Towns of Northern Mongolia. By Dr. A. MARKOFF. Mongolia, and especially its inner life, have hitherto not been properly studied. Travellers mostly confine themselves to noting only that which strikes the eye.

I. Urga and its monasteries, divided into three parts, are described; (1) the monastery, (2) Gandan (temples and residence of Buddhist students), aud (3) Maimachen (merchants town). Bogdo Ula, the 'holy mountain,' stands to the south of Urga. The author described the Mongol veneration for the holy mountain'; no capital punishment is allowed to take place within sight of it; it is the reputed birthplace of Chinghiz Khan, to whom yearly sacrifice is made at the foot of the mountain. The author mentioned the piety of the Mongols and their belief that gifts to monasteries secure reward in after life. Richness of monasteries is a consequence of this belief. Description of temples: (1) The Duchin golobyin Sume; its gold cupola hung with innumerable silver bells, which are always ringing. It is inaccessible to non-Buddhists. (2) The Barun örgö (chapel of Abalai Khan), less a temple than a museum, with its ancient relics, including an old throne with figures thereon representing former Mongol heroes. (3) The Maidari temple, largest of all, which, besides its great idol, contains idols of 10,000 Buddhas made in 1799. Description of Urga market-place and its trade; the insanitary condition of the streets, the insupportable dust in summer, the ineffectual canal system for watering the streets; the Chinese quarters, their houses, occupations, and the immorality of the inhabitants.

II. Ulejasutai, second largest town in North Mongolia and seat of GovernmentGeneral. Soldiers main population; tradesmen all Chinese. Labourer's hire 77. per annum, including food but not clothing. Very picturesque neighbourhood.

III. Kobdo. Description of prison; cruel treatment of prisoners; minor offenders allowed to walk into town occasionally, when they have a board affixed to them to show they are prisoners. Town remarkable for cleanliness. Trade is in the hands of Chinese.

5. Notes on the Topography of Caria. By W. R. PATON and J. L. MYRES.

A series of short journeys in the neighbourhood of Mylasa, Keramos and Halikarnassos result in a number of corrections of the physical features: especially a considerable extension N. W. of the basin of the Kartal déré, which issues at Keramos; it has a common watershed with the China Chai, which joins the Mæander near Aidin.

The geology of the district determines its physical feature; the limestone plateau is drained partly by swallow-holes from enclosed basins, partly by deep ravines; beneath the limestone crystalline rocks are upheaved in two parallel N.W.-S.E. anticlinals, one forming the range of Latmos, the other extending from the root of the peninsula of Knidos, through that of Myndos, and as far as Patmos. About Myndos and in Kos was a volcanic area, active both before and after the deposition of tho cretaceous limestones.

Remains of ancient Carian and Lelegian civilisation have been examined, and the following ancient sites have been identified and verified :-Pedasa, one at Karajahissar, one near Bitès (Ghiuk Chalar); Kindya at Utch-bounar; Telmessos, two towns and the oracular temple on the Kara Dagh; Karyanda at Ghiöl; Termile at Tremil; Pelea at Borghaz; Taramptos at Taranda.