WANDERING; a technical term with German mechanics, to denote their custom of travelling into foreign countries after finishing their apprenticeship. Formerly, they were bound by law, in all German states, to travel in this way, otherwise they could not make their masterpieces; that is, those specimens of their skill, by which they proved to the corporation that they were fit to become masters, and which they are still bound to exhibit in several parts of Germany where corporations exist. Whether this habit of wandering arose from the universal disposition of the Germans for travelling into foreign countries, which scatters German mechanics all over the world, or from the unsettled habits of many classes in the middle ages, as the knights, the vacantivi (see School, vol. xi, p. 251), or the frequent campaigns of the Germans in Italy, where the servants of the noblemen learned many arts not known in Germany, we cannot here discuss. In summer, mechanics may always be seen on the roads in Germany, carrying knapsacks and sometimes a few tools. They receive dinner and lodging, or money, from the corporation in each place, or from the master-workmen, if there are only a few in a place. Many peculiarities and absurdities are connected with this receiving of presents. Instead of a passport, they carry "wanderingbooks," so called, which must be kept in good order, and shown to the police of the places through which they pass.

WANKER, Ferdinand Geminian, doctor of theology, professor of moral philosophy in the university of Freiburg, was born in 1758, in Freiburg, in the Brisgau, was made professor of morals in 1788, and elected archbishop, but died in 1824, before the papal confirmation arrived from Rome. His works would prove instructive to many Catholics who believe that they abandon their faith if they give up certain things which are inconsistent with the present state of intelligence, or with the testimony of history. Among his works are the following:-On Reason and Revelation, with a View to the Moral Wants of Mankind (Vienna, 1802, 2d ed., Freiburg); On the Matrimonial Tie, considered with Respect to Natural Law and Pure Morality (1810); and System of Christian Morals.

WAPATOO ISLAND; an island of North America, formed by the junction of the

Multnomah with the Columbia, twenty miles long and ten broad. Its numerous ponds abound with the common arrowhead (sagittaria sagittifolia), to the root of which is attached a bulb, growing in the mud. This bulb, to which the Indians give the name of wapatoo, is the great article of food, and almost the staple article of commerce on the Columbia. It is never out of season, so that, at all times of the year, the valley is frequented by the neighboring Indians, who come to gather it. It is collected chiefly by the women, who take a light canoe in a pond where the water is as high as the breast, and, by means of their toes, separate the root from the bulb, which, on being freed from the mud, rises immediately to the surface of the water, and is thrown into the canoe. This plant is found through the whole extent of the Columbia valley, but does not grow farther eastward.

WAPPING; a village and parish of England, in Middlesex, on the north bank of the Thames, one of the out-parishes of London, on the east side of the city, inhabited chiefly by persons employed in trade, connected with the shipping of the port of London; population, 5889. Here are the London docks, St. Catharine's docks, &c., and the stupendous warehouses belong to the custom-house, &c. (See Docks, and London.)

WAR, in general; a state of hostility and violence between individuals, or, in a more common sense, between sovereign nations, who, having no superior power to which to appeal for the decision of their disputes, have recourse to force and arms. In contradistinction to international or public war, civil war designates a similar state of violence existing between different portions or members of the same nation. International wars are generally distinguished into offensive wars, or wars of attack, and defensive wars, or wars of defence. The party which carries on what is called an offensive war is not, however, by any means, always the original author of the hostile measures, since the seeming assailant is often forced into his position by the violation of his rights, or the menacing posture of the other party. It is well known that both belligerents aim to acquire the credit of acting on the defensive, partly to conciliate public opinion, which, though often mistakenly, commonly pronounces a defensive war justifiable, and condemns an offensive war; and sometimes, also, to secure the assistance of foreign powers, which has been guarantied, by treaty, to

one or both parties, who may become the object of offensive measures. The right of declaring war, in monarchical governments, is commonly in the king, as the actual sovereign power, or the head of the executive, as in constitutional monarchies. In England and France, the king has the right to declare war and make peace; but this power is virtually controlled by the legislative power to grant or withhold supplies. In the U. States, the constitution provides (art. 1, sec. 8) that the congress shall have power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, raise and support armies, and provide and maintain a navy. It is not, in modern times, a common practice to make a formal declaration of war, or official previous notice to the enemy; but a domestic manifesto of the sovereign to his subjects, or to the nation, is considered as sufficient to apprize neutrals that a war actually exists. Thus, in the war between England and France, in 1778, the recalling of the British minister from Paris was considered the first public act of hostility; and there was no other declaration of war. So, in the war of 1812, between Great Britain and the U. States, hostilities were commenced, on our part, as soon as the necessary act of congress was passed, without waiting to communicate our intentions to the English government. Individuals have no right to commit acts of hostility, except in self-defence, without a commission from the proper authorities, and are liable to be treated as pirates and robbers if they undertake hostilities on their own responsibility. (See Privateers, and Prize.)—On the rights and duties of belligerents in general, see the articles Nations, Law of; and Conquest. See, likewise, Soldiers, Strategy, Military Sciences, Army, Navy, Tirailleurs, &c.

War, Private, or Club-Law (jus manuarium, in German, Faustrecht, fist-law). Throughout the countries which composed the Carlovingian empire, no feudal right was more universally established and exercised than that of private war, the immediate cause and systematic commencement of which are sufficiently to be found in the anarchy of the ninth and tenth centuries. During the abeyance of all regal or national authority, the great feudatories were, in fact, in the condition of foreign powers to each other: they were without any common superior jurisdiction, to which, had they been inclined, they could appeal for the redress of injuries; and the power of the sword alone remained to decide their quarrels.

(See Middle Ages, and Feudal Syste Their example was followed by the r subvassals, and the countries of Europe were perpetually ravaged with internal hostilities. In England alone, of all feu dal countries, this scourge was little felt; and, though it cannot be said that the practice of private wars was unknown under the Norman kings, yet the right of waging these feuds was never recognised: their occurrence was denounced, and sometimes punished, as an offence against the king's peace, that is, against the supreme authority of the crown. (See Hallam's Middle Ages, vol. ii, chap. 8.) By the feudal customs of the continent, the right of private war was extended to all persons of noble quality, or, in other words, to all possessors of fiefs on knightly tenure. But they must be equal, in the scale of infeudation, with their adversaries; nor did every civil cause of offence justify an appeal to arms, but such deadly injuries only as are usually deemed capital crimes in modern jurisprudence, or such outrageous insults as no knight might endure. When the war was once begun, it might legally be espoused by the relations of both parties; and it was even incumbent on them, in some cases, to give aid in the quarrel, under pain of forfeiting the claims and inheritance of kindred. Still more were the vassals of each combatant involved in the contest, since, by the very essence of the feudal obligations, they were bound to defend and assist their lords. The means by which this pernicious custom was finally abrogated, were various. The most remarkable was the truce of God (q. v.), by which men were forbidden to assail their adversaries during any of the holy festivals, and also during the interval between every Wednesday evening and Monday morning, as embracing those days of the week which had been sanctified by the passion and resurrection of the Redeemer. At first, the truce of God, extending from France, was adopted throughout Europe; but, notwithstanding the anxiety of the church, and repeated decrees of popes and councils, its provisions appear to have been little regarded. The interposition of royal authority was necessary to restrain, and finally to extinguish, these bloody feuds; and the first step towards the accomplishment of this object dates from the ordinance of Louis IX, forbidding, under penalty of treason, the com· mencement of any private war until forty days after the commission of the act in which the quarrel had originated.

The opportunities of accommodation between the parties, given by this edict, which was known under the name of the king's peace, or royal truce, appear to have contributed essentially to diminish the number of private wars in France; and the endeavors of St. Louis, being followed up by Philip the Fair, and successfully completed by Charles VI and Louis XI, led, soon after the middle of the fifteenth century, to the total abolition of the practice in that country. In Germany, truces of this kind (called landfriede, peace of the land) were repeatedly declared for a certain period, during which private war was illegal. But the circumstance that Germany always continued to be divided among a great number of petty but independent sovereign princes, retarded the accomplishment of the efforts of the clergy and the emperors to effect the entire abolition of the practice. In 1486, a landfriede of ten years, the longest that had ever been established, was proclaimed ; and it was soon followed by the perpetual peace (ewiger landfriede), entirely forbidding private war. (See Chamber, Imperial, and German Empire.) WAR, NORTHERN. (See Northern War.) WAR OF 1812-15. (See RussianGerman War.)

WAR OF THIRTY YEARS. (See Thirty Years' War.)

WAR, PEASANTS' or RURAL. (See Peasants' War.)

WARBECK, Perkin; an individual who played a singular part in the reign of Henry VII, giving himself out as the second son of Edward IV, who was supposed to have been murdered, in the Tower, by Richard III. It is difficult, at this distance of time, to decide upon his pretensions; but his ill success has set him down with posterity as an impostor. He was first heard of at the court of the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV, about the year 1490, when all were struck with his resemblance to that prince. Some authors have asserted that he was the natural son of Edward. Supported by the duchess of Burgundy in his pretensions, Warbeck at length (1496) ventured to make a descent upon England; but, being worsted in the attempt, he retired to Scotland, where he was well received by the king, who gave him the hand of Catharine Gordon, a young lady akin to the royal family. The Scotch king was, however, soon after prevailed upon to abandon his cause; and Warbeck landed in Cornwall, where he was proclaimed king by the name of Richard IV.

But, while yet at the head of 10,000 men, he suddenly deserted his followers, on the approach of Henry, and took refuge in the sanctuary of Beaulieu. Having finally surrendered himself into the hands of the king, he was obliged to read a confession of his imposture, while standing in the stocks, and then thrown into the Tower (1499). Here he met with Edward Plantagenet, earl of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence, and rightful heir to the crown, who had been a prisoner there for fifteen years. The unhappy boy listened with eagerness to the projects, suggested by Warbeck, for their deliverance, and they were both charged with a conspiracy to set themselves free, by seducing some of the guards and destroying the rest. Warbeck seems to have been excited, by the king, to inveigle Warwick into acts which would give a pretence for effecting his death. Bacon darkly hints, that Ferdinand of Spain was unwilling to assent to the marriage between his daughter, the unfortunate Catharine, and Arthur, prince of Wales, while the earl of Warwick lived. However this may be, Warbeck was convicted of treason, and hanged at Tyburn (1499); and Warwick was likewise convicted of high treason, by a jury of peers, and put to death for an offence which his faculties did not enable him to comprehend. Rey (Essais Historiques et Critiques sur Richard III, Paris, 1818) maintains that Warbeck was the son and lawful heir of Edward IV.

WARBURTON, William, a celebrated prelate of the English church, born at Newark-upon-Trent, in Nottinghamshire, in 1698, was the second son of an attorney, and, after being educated at school, was, in 1714, articled to an attorney at East Markham, in his native county. After completing a clerkship of five years, he was admitted in one of the courts at Westminster, and, returning to Newark, he engaged in legal practice. Not finding the profession adapted to his taste or talents, he relinquished it, and, in 1723, took deacon's orders in the church. His first work, consisting of Miscellaneous Translations, in Prose and Verse, from Roman authors, was published with a Latin dedication to sir George Sutton, who, in 1726, bestowed on him a small vicarage. Shortly after, he visited London, and formed an acquaintance with some of the inferior wits of that period, among whom was Theobald, then engaged on an edition of Shakspeare, to which Warburton became a contributor. In 1727, he began to distinguish himself,

as an original writer by his Inquiry into the Causes of Prodigies and Miracles, which he dedicated to sir Robert Sutton, through whose interest he was placed in the list of the king's masters of arts, on his majesty's visit to Cambridge, in 1728; and he thus supplied the want of an academical education. His patron also presented him to the rectory of Brand Broughton, in Lincolnshire, where he remained several years, during which he composed most of those works which contributed to the establishment of his fame. In 1736 appeared his Alliance between Church and State, or the Necessity and Equity of an established Religion and Test Law, which passed through four editions during the life of the author, though it is said to have given satisfaction neither to the zealots of the church nor to the advocates for religious liberty. The first volume of his chief work was Dublished, in 1738, under the title of the Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated on the Principles of a Religious Deist, from the Omission of the Doctrine of a Future State of Rewards and Punishments in the Jewish Dispensation. This paradoxical performance met with adversaries among all parties, who concurred in criticising and censuring the theory on which it is founded. Undismayed by animadversion, he published a Vindication of his opinions, and persevered in the prosecution of his work. Having published, in the literary journal called the Works of the Learned, in 1739 and 1740, a defence of the Essay on Man, against the remarks of De Crousaz of Geneva, Pope acknowledged his obligations to his advocate, and an intimacy ensued between them. On his death, in 1744, Pope bequeathed to our author half his library, and the copy-right of such of his works already printed as were not otherwise disposed of. Among the numerous antagonists of Warburton and his Divine Legation, were doctors Middleton, Pococke, R. Grey, Sykes and Stebbing, against whom he published, in 1744 and 1745, two defences, in which he treats all his opponents, except Middleton, with a high degree of asperity and self-confidence. He became, in 1746, preacher to he society of Lincoln's inn; and, in the following year, he appeared as the editor of Shakspeare. He now rapidly advanced in the course of preferment in his profession, becoming prebend of Gloucester in 1753, king's chaplain in ordinary in 1754, then prebend of Durham, D. D. by archiepiscopal mandate, dean of Bristol in

1757, and, two years after, bishop of Gloucester. The fifth volume of the Divine Legation was published in 1765; and some remarks which he introduced on the character of doctor W. Lowth, father of the bishop of London, involved him in a new controversy, in which he was In assisted by doctor Richard Hurd. 1768, he established a lecture at Lincoln's inn, on the evidence in favor of Christianity from the prophecies of the Old and New Testament. The last years of his life were embittered by the decease of an only son, who fell a victim to consumption at the age of nineteen. Bishop Warburton died at Gloucester, June 7, 1779, and was interred in the cathedral church, where a monument was erected to his memory. His works were collected and published by his friend bishop Hurd, in 1788 (6 vols., 4to.); and a biographical memoir, forming a seventh volume, appeared several years after. Doctor Johnson, in his Life of Pope, says of Warburton, "He was a man of vigorous faculties, a mind fervid and vehement, supplied, by incessant and unlimited inquiry, with wonderful extent and variety of knowledge, which yet had not oppressed his imagination, nor clouded his perspicuity. To every work he brought a memory full fraught, together with a fancy fertile of original combinations, and at once exerted the powers of the scholar, the reasoner and the wit. But his knowledge was too multifarious to be always exact, and his pursuits were too eager to be always cautious. His abilities gave him a haughty consequence, which he disdained to correct or mollify; and his impatience of opposition disposed him to treat his adversaries with such contemptuous superiority as made his readers commonly his enemies, and excited against the advocate some who favored the cause. He seems to have adopted the Roman emperor's determination, Oderint dum metuant. He used no allurements of gentle language, but wished to compel rather than to persuade. His style is copious without selection, and forcible without neatness; he took the words that presented themselves; his diction is coarse and impure, and his sentences are unmeasured."

WARD, Artemas, the first major-generai in the American army, graduated at Harvard college, in 1748. For several years, he was an active and useful member of the general court, and, in 1774, one of the provincial congress. He served in the war previous to the peace of Paris, and, when the revolutionary struggle com