for every 3000 aspers; therefore each of them from two to six spahis. Thus the minimum of their collective quotas is 134,054 men. In 1792, it was resolved to unite all the timars with the imperial domains, after the death of the possessors; upon which the government was to support the army. The number of troops, therefore, has not changed much. Besides these troops, the Porte maintains another corps of cavalry, consisting of the former rifle makers and amorers. This kind of cavalry, called jebeddshy, is divided into sixty ortas, each of which, according to rule, should contain 500 men; but the number is never complete, aud the ortas together never contain more than 18,000 men. Since the introduction of the European military system into Turkey, and the abolition of the janizaries (in 1826), part of the cavalry has also received another organization. Yet in many provinces, the military fiefs still remain, and are held upon the conditions above mentioned.

ZAIRE, OF CONGO; a river of Africa, which is supposed to rise in about lat. 10° S., and which takes a northerly course to lat. 3°, in Congo (q. v.), after which it takes a south-west direction, and runs into the Atlantic at Fathomless point; lon. 12° 20′ E.; lat. 6° S. It is less than three miles wide at the mouth, has a very impetuous current, and pours a great mass of water into the ocean. In 1816, an expedition was fitted out from England to explore this river; but the company were unable to navigate the river, either with their sloop or with boats, farther than 120 miles. Leaving their sloop, they proceeded on foot 150 miles farther; but, meeting with insuperable difficulties, they were compelled to return.-See Tuckey's Expedition to explore the Zaire or Congo (4to., 1818).—It has been supposed by some, that the Zaire, or Congo, is the outlet for the waters of the Niger; but the discoveries of Lander have refuted this supposition. (See Niger.)

ZAJONCZEK, Joseph, prince, senator, general of infantry, viceroy of the kingdom of Poland, born, in 1752, at Kaminieck, of a noble but poor family, like other young Polish noblemen, entered the army, became, in 1784, lieutenant-colonel, in 1793 colonel and commander of a regiment. He served in the war of Poland against Russia, and was made major-general. But Poland was overcome, and Zajonczek, with many others, émigrated to France. On his way thither, he was arrested in Gallicia, together with his broth27

VOL. XIII.

er, and both were imprisoned in Joseph stadt. When set at liberty, he went to Paris, and was made general of brigade in the French army in Italy. The Polish legion did great service in that war, and Zajonczek distinguished himself. He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, anu afterwards commanded a division of French troops in Italy. In 1812, he accompanied Napoleon to Russia, where he lost a leg. He then quitted the French army. In 1815, the emperor Alexander appointed him viceroy, or namiestnik, in Poland. In 1818, he was made a prince. Nicholas confirmed him, in 1825, in his dignities and privileges. He died at Warsaw, July 28, 1826.

ZALEUCUS; the lawgiver of the republic of Locris, a Greek colony in Græcia Magna. (q. v.) He lived, according to some, 500 B. C., and was a disciple of Pythagoras; according to others, he lived as early as the seventh century B. C. Only a few disconnected notices of his life and laws can be gleaned from ancient authors. His laws seem to have been very severe. In order to suppress extravagance of dress, he ordained that prostitutes alone should wear jewels and ornaments of gold Adultery was to be punished by the loss of both eyes. The son of the lawgiver himself was convicted of this crime: the people, actuated by esteem for the father, prayed him to acquit his son; but Zaleucus remained inexorable. In order, however, to satisfy the demands of parental love, as well as the requisitions of the law, be condemned his son to lose one eye, to which he added one of his own. This is said to have had such an effect, that, as long as the lawgiver lived, no adultery was heard of in the republic of Locris. In order to maintain the authority of his laws, he ordained that every man who should propose a new law should appear with a rope round his neck, in order to be immediately strangled if the proposed law was not preferred to the existing one.

ZALUSKI; a Polish family, known in the literary and political history of their country.-Andrew Stanislaus, bishop of Cracow, died in 1758, and left his library of 20,000 volumes to the university of that city. His brother, Joseph Andrew, bishop of Kiow, published the Leges, Statuta, Consuetudines et Privilegia Regni Polonie (Warsaw, 1732, fol.). His Specimen Historicum Polonica Critica is also much valued. He died in 1774.-A count Joseph Zaluski, aid-de-camp of the emperor Alexander, was made curator of the ani

versity of Cracow, in 1826. (See Cracow.j

ZAMBECCARI, Francesco, count, celebrated as an aëronaut, was born in 1756, at Bologna, and was descended of an ancient family, one of the forty senatorial families of the city. He was carefully educated, and made great proficiency in mathematics. Having entered the Spanish naval service, Zambeccari was captured by the Turks, and carried to Constantinople, where he was put into the baguio. His liberation was finally effected by the interposition of the Spanish ambassador; and, the count made a tour in the Levant and in Africa, and afterwards visited the European capitals. He then returned to his native country, and occupied himself with the study of aeronautics. He had devised an ingenious contrivance for taking advantage of the different currents of air at different elevations, so as to give what direction he should choose to the balloon. His idea was to cause the balloon to rise or sink at pleasure by increasing or diminishing the quantity of gas, and to guide its course by ours. In 1812, he attempted to carry this project into execution, although the weather was highly unfavorable; "but the balloon, having become entangled in a tree, took fire, and the unfortimate aeronaut perished, a victim to his zeal for science.

ZAMOISKI. Among several distinguished men of this name äre, 1. John Zamoiski (in Latin, Samoscius), born in 1542, the greatest Polish statesman and scholar of his time. He studied at Paris and Padua, became chancellor of the realm and general-in-chief, and died in 1605. It was chiefly through his means that Sigismund III obtained the Polish crown. He raised an army, partly at his own expense, and defended the frontiers of the republic against the Swedes, Russian and Tartars. At the same time, he promoted the sciences by inviting foreign scholars into the country, establishing libraries, and founding learned institutions. He wrote, among other works, De Senatu Romano (in Grævius's Thes. ant. Rom. 1); De perfecto Senatore.-2. Andrzey Zamoiski, high chancellor, the distinguished defender of the independence of his country, was early a military officer of signal courage and talent, subsequently a senator and high chancellor (1764). He strove to suppress the disturbances at the election of king Stanislaus Poniatowski, and afterwards resigned all his offices, because he could no longer serve his country. In 1776, he accepted the invitation of the diet to

prepare a digest of the laws, in which he restored the rights of the third estate (Polish, Warsaw, 1778, 3 vols., fol.; German, by Nikisch, Warsaw, 1780). The king approved of this excellent work, but the diet would not accept it. Soon after the great political change in 1791, the count died, in January, 1792. His name was every where held in reverence. He was a philosopher in the true sense of the word, just, wise and benevolent. He gave the first example of the abolition of bondage on his estates. His wife, Constantia, a princess Czartoryska, was an uncommonly accomplished and noble woman. She died in 1797.

ZAMOLXIS, the Getian; according to some, the slave of Pythagoras and his disciple; but, according to Herodotus, he belongs to an earlier age (Hist. iv, 94 and 96). He was esteemed in antiquity as a wise man, and one who conferred great benefits on his people. He is said to have taught them the immortality of the soul (Herodotus iv, 93), and to have given them wise laws; on which account divine honors were paid him after his death.

ZAMORIN. (See Calicut.)

ZAMOSC; the strongest fortress of the kingdom of Poland, in the woiwodeship of Lublin, between this place and Lemberg, in a south-eastern direction from Warsaw, on the river Wieprz; lon. 23° 15 E.; lat. 50° 42′ N. In 1809, the Poles took it from the Austrians, and, in 1813, the Russians from the French. The place was an entailed estate of the Zamoiski family, and was built in the Italian style, by the famous general and chancellor John Zamoiski (q. v.), after he had defeated the archduke Maximilian of Aus tria. In 1820, the state bought the town, with the environs, from the senator count Stanislaus Kostka de Zamoiski. Zamosc was now deprived of its extensive suburbs, and changed into a fortress. The coat of arms of the Zamoiski family is still, er at least was till of late, preserved on the walls. The place contains a large palace, several other large buildings, among which is an arsenal, four churches, of which one is Greek, two convents, a theatre, &c. Population, exclusive of the garrison, 3500. There is here a gymnasium, a library, and a printing-office, all established by John Zamoiski, already mentioned.

ZAMPIERI. (See Dominichino.)

ZANESVILLE, a flourishing town and seat of justice for Muskingum county, Ohio, is situated on the east bank of Muskingum river, immediately adjoining the falls, in lat. 40° N., lon. 82° W., and seventy-four

climate, though very hot in summer, is not unwholesome. The chief products are currants, also olive-oil, and wine; some cotton and silk. The corn raised is hardly equal to four months' consumption. (See Ionian Islands.)-Zante, the capital of the island, has a population of 20,000 souls; lon. 21° 8′ E.; lat. 37° 50′ N. It is the largest town in the republic of the Seven Islands, pleasantly situated at the bottom of a small bay, on a hill of gentle declivity. It resembles in its appearance an Italian town. The principal street, which traverses it in its whole length, is broad and handsome, bordered with well-built houses and churches, and has a foot-pavement. The houses are partly of brick and partly of wood, and, on account of the frequency of earthquakes, seldom exceed one or two stories. The harbor is spacious; the environs extremely pleasant and picturesque. In 1820, several hundred houses were overthrown here by an earthquake. The island was in the possession of the Venetians from the end of the fourteenth to the end of the eighteenth century. In 1797, it was taken by the French, and in 1799, by the Russians. In 1815, it became one of the members of the Ionian republic.

ZANTHOPICRITE; the name given to a crystalline substance, extracted from the bark of the zanthoxilum of the Caribbee islands.

ZAPPI, Giovanni Battista Felice; born at Imola, in 1667, one of the best Italian poets of his age. After having studied law at Bologna, where he made so rapid progress that the degree of doctor was conferred upon him when he was only thirteen years old, he went to Rome, where he soon distinguished himself as a poet. He was one of the founders and chief ornaments of the academy of the Arcadians. His poems are graceful, especially his canzoni and madrigals, but at times artificial. Clement XI gave him the hope of considerable benefices; but he died in 1719, without having obtained them. His wife, Faustina Maratti, daughter of the distinguished Roman painter Carlo Maratti, was equally distinguished for beauty and poetical talent.

ZAR. (See Czar.)

ZARLINO, Giuseppe, born in 1540 (according to Gerber, 1520), at Chioggia, near Venice, on the Adriatic sea, died in Venice in 1599. He is one of the greatest of the theoretical musicians who preceded Rameau and Rousseau. He determined more accurately the relation of the major

and minor third, and, by his Instituzion armoniche (Venice, 1562, 1573, folio), laig the foundation of a thorough treatment of harmony. As early as his eighteenth year, he appeared as an author, and wrote a number of works, published collectively, under the title of Instituzioni armoniché and Dimostrazioni armoniche (1589, 4 vols., folio). As a composer, he is chiefly knowr by a piece of music performed under his direction, as chapel-master in the St. Mark's church, Venice, at the celebration of the victory of Lepanto. Much information respecting the music of the sixteenth century is contained in his works; but his style is not attractive.

ZARSKOJE SELÓ (i. e. Sara's Village, so called from a lady who owned it when it was yet a village) is an imperial pleasure castle, twenty-five wersts (about seventeen miles) south of St. Petersburg, from which a highway leads to it through a very monotonous country. Catharine I built a castle here, which Elizabeth enlarged and embellished in 1744, and to which Catharine II, whose favorite resi dence it was, gave its present splendor. The large palace, three stories high, is magnificently ornamented: even the outer cornices and other ornaments are gilt; yet most of it, with the exception of what Catharine II changed or built herself, is in an old fashioned style. Among the principal objects of attention, are the great staircase; the saloon, lined with mirrors; the chapel; the porcelain room; and the amber room, in which the walls are covered from the floor to the ceiling with sculptures of amber. sculptures of amber. The rooms contain magnificent furniture and beautiful paintings. There is also a gallery of bronze figures, made by artists of the Petersburg acadeiny. In the gardens, which are laid out in the English manner, by a German, are a hermitage, with statues and vases, Roman and Gothic temples, pyramids, several columns and obelisks, monuments, and triumphal arches, which Catharine II caused to be erected to count Romanzoff and the brothers Orloff. (q. v.) The entrance of the garden is now adorned by a colossal triumphal arch of an an tique form, consisting of cast iron, witlı the inscription, "Sacred to my dear companions in arms," erected by the emperor Alexander, after the wars of 1812, '13 and '14. (For some more information, see Loudon's Encyclopædia of Gardening.) Near this palace lies the town of Sofia, with which Zarskoje Seló is at present united, and where, some years ago, a lyceum, for the education of civil officers,