uniform length, while the main texture remains uninjured. Manufacture of Woollens. In England, the arts of spinning wool and manufacturing the yarn into cloth, were undoubt edly introduced by the Romans. The manufacture of broadcloths was established soon after the year 1200, if not previously. But the woollen manufacture of Flanders being, at this period, and long after, in a comparatively advanced state, English wool was exported in large quantities to Bruges and other Flemish cities, whence fine cloths and other products were brought back in exchange. Edward III invited over Flemish weavers, fullers, dyers and others. Shortly after the first emigration of Flemings, or in 1337, an act was passed, prohibiting the wearing of any cloths made beyond sea, and prohibiting the export of English wool. From that period, the manufacture has always been regarded as of primary importance. During the reign of Charles II, there were many, though unfounded, complaints of the decay of the manufacture; and, by way of encouraging it, an act was passed, ordering that all persons should be buried in woollen shrouds. This act preserved its place in the statute book for more than 130 years. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, Mr. Gregory King and doctor Davenant (Davenant's Works, Whitworth's ed., vol. ii, p. 233) estimated the value of the wool shorn in England at £2000,000 a year; and they supposed that the value of the wool (including that imported from abroad) was quadrupled in the manufacture, making the entire value of the woollen articles annually produced in England and Wales, £8,000,000, of which about £2,000,000 were exported. In 1700 and 1701, the official value of the woollens exported amounted to about £3,000,000 a year. Owing to the vast increase in the wealth and population of the country, the manufacture must have been very greatly extended during the last century; but the increase in the amount of the exports has been comparatively inconsiderable. At an average of the six years ending with 1789, the annual official value of the exports was £3,544,160 a year, being an increase of only about £540,000 on the amount exported in 1700. The extraordinary increase of the cotton manufacture, soon after 1780, and the extent to which cotton articles then began to be substituted for those of wool, though it did not occasion any absolute decline of the manufacture, no doubt contributed powerfully to check its progress. In 1802, the official value of the exports rose to £7,321,012, being the largest amount they have ever reached. In 1812, they sunk to £4,376,479. During the three years ending with 1830, the official and the declared or real values of the woollen manufactures exported from the United Kingdom have been as follows: 1828. 1829 1830. Official value of woollen manufactures exported, £5,728,969 £5,372,490 £5,558,709 Declared or real value of ditto, Value of the Manufacture. Number of Persons employed. The most discordant estimates have been given as to both these points. For the most part, however, they have been grossly exaggerated. Mr. Stevenson, who is one of the writers on British statistics on whose statements the most reliance is to be placed, after a careful 5,125,984 4,661,259 4,850,884 examination into the subject, has given the following estimate of the value of the woollen manufactured goods annually produced in England and Wales, and of the interest, &c., of the capital, and the number of persons employed in the manufacture: Number of people employed, 480,000, or perhaps 500,000. We believe, however, taking Scotland into accoun‹, and looking at the probable annual expenditure of each individual on woollens, that the total value of the manufactured articles annually produced in 22 VOL. XII. £18,000 000 £6,000,000 2,400,000 9,600,000 £18,000,000 Great Britain may, at present, be moderately calculated at £20,000,000, or £22,000,000. But, on the other hand, Mr. Stevenson has materially underrated the proportion of the entire value of the . manufacture falling to the share of the capitalists, and required to indemnify them for their various outgoings, and to yield them ordinary profits. In estimating the wages of the persons employed at about eight shillings a week, or twenty pounds a year, he is below the mark; and ten shillings a week, or twenty-six pounds a year, would be a more correct average. The number of persons employed in the manufacture does not probably much exceed, if it does not fall short of, 400,000.— The low condition of the woollen manufactures in the U. States at the commencement of the last war with Great Britain, was shown by the request of the secretary of war to congress, that the existing laws might be so far repealed as to allow the importation of six thousand blankets for the Indian department. The law, however, was not repealed, and the want of woollens, during that contest, caused the establishment of some woollen factories, and an extension of the business of those which had previously existed; but they could supply only a small part of the demand, and an illicit trade was, in fact, kept up with the enemy. The growth of sheep, and the manufacture of their wool, was of considerable value soon after the close of the war; and many millions of dollars were invested in these branches of business, fine-woolled sheep having been purchased at most extravagant prices, because fine wool had been sold for from three to four dollars per pound. But the high duties imposed during the war were reduced after its termination, and vast quantities of British and other woollen goods were introduced and sacrificed to break up the American establishments. The manufacturers were ruined, and the sheep were, to a great extent, slaughtered. Soon after the British cloths greatly advanced in price, and the American establishments began partially to revive, and maintained themselves, though the business was not profitable till the passage of the tariff law of 1824, by which the existing duty of fifteen per cent. on cloths and cassimeres, was immediately raised to thirty per cent., and was to be made thirty-three and a half per cent. after June 30, 1825. An ad valorem duty of twenty per cent., instead of the existing duty of fifteen per cent., was also imposed on imported wool, to advance to thirty per cent. after June 1, 1826, on all wool costing more than ten cents per pound. Contemporaneously with the changes in the American tariff, a revision of the English tariff was made, avowedly . with the object of enabling the British manufacturers to command the foreign, and especially the American market of low-priced cloths. The duty imposed in 1824 proved inadequate for the protection of the American woollen manufactures; and their languishing state indicated the ruin of those engaged in them, unless further legislative encouragement was afforded. A bill to this effect received the sanction of the house, but was laid on the table in the senate by the casting vote of the vice-president. Steps were immediately taken to bring the subject again before congress; and a convention of delegates from the states interested was held at Harrisburg, in August, 1827. This convention prepared a memorial, recommending an ad valorem duty of forty per cent. on woollen manufactures, with an annual increase of five per cent. until it amounted to fifty per cent. In the debates on this subject in the next session of congress, Mr. Mallary estimated the consumption of woollens in the United States at $72,000,000 per annum ; of which $10,000,000 were imported, $22,000,000 the productions of American manufactures, and $40,000,000 the result of household industry. The tariff adopted during that session much increased the existing duties both on manufactured and unmanufactured wool. Some changes in these particulars were made by the tariff of 1832. In the report on wool and woollens, made to the "friends of domestic industry," assembled in New York in the autumn of 1831, the gross annual product of wool and its manufactures in the U. States was estimated at $40,000,000. The fixed and floating capital vested in the woollen manufactories in the U. States, such as lands, waterrights, buildings, machinery, stock on hand, and cash employed, was estimated at an equal amount. The proportion between the amount of wool used in the factories and that worked up by household industry, was estimated to be as three to two. WOOLLETT, William, an eminent engraver, was born at Maidstone, in Kent, August 27, 1735. He was the son of a thread-maker, and early attracted the notice of his school-master by his display of talent for drawing. Having attempted some engravings in copper, which were seen by Mr. Tinney, an engraver, the latter took him as an apprentice. When out of his time, his rise in his profession was very rapid; and he brought the art of landscape engraving to great perfection. Hc also engraved historical subjects and portraits with the greatest success. All his best works bring high prices, but particularly his Niobe, Phaeton, Ceyx and Alcyone, Celadon and Amelia, and the Fishery, all from Wilson; and his Death of General Wolfe, and Battle of the Boyne, from West. He died May 23, 1785, at the age of fifty. WOOLSACK; the seat of the lord chancellor of England, in his capacity of speaker of the house of lords. It is what its name implies, a large, square bag of wool, without back or arms, covered with red cloth. In front of the lord chancellor lie the great seal and the mace. The judges, king's counsel at law, and masters in chancery, who sit in the house of lords, but do not vote, are likewise seated on woolsacks. The practice was derived from the well-known fact of wool having been, from an early period, the great staple of England. WOOLSTON, Thomas, an English divine, the son of a tradesman of Northampton, was born in 1669. He was admitted of Sidney college, Cambridge, in 1685, of which he was subsequently elected fellow, and took orders. Having become an assiduous reader of the works of Origen, he imbibed a fondness for allegorical interpretations of Scripture; the result of which tendency appeared in 1705, in a work entitled the Old Apology for the Truth of the Christian Religion against the Jews and Gentiles revived. The object of this tract was to prove that all the actions of Moses were typical of Christ and his church, and to show that some of the fathers understood them as such, and not as realities. In 1720, he left his college, and went to London, where he published a Latin dissertation concerning the supposed epistle of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius. In the same year, he published two Latin dissertations in defence of Origen's allegorical mode of interpreting the Scriptures. His next work was an Inquiry whether the Quakers do not, the nearest of any other Sect, in Religion resemble the primitive Christians in Principles and Practice. His chief object in this publication was, apparently, to attack the clergy, which, with his refusal to reside at college, according to the statutes, caused him the loss of his fellowship, in 1721. In 1726, he published a Defence of the Miracle of the Thundering Legion. Engaging in the controversy between Anthony Collins and his opponents, he published several pamphlets, in which he not only argued for mystical interpretations of the miracles of Christ, but asserted that they were never actually wrought. He was now regarded as an enemy to Christianity, and a prosecution was instituted against him by the attorney-genneral, which Whiston, and other friends to toleration, had the interest to get stayed. He was not, however, silenced, and, in 1727, and the three following years, published his Six Discourses on the Miracles, and two Defences of the Discourses, in which he not only maintained his former opinions, but expressed himself with a sarcasm and ridicule which gave serious offence; and the law again interfered. He was tried at Guildhall for blasphemy, when his counsel pleaded that it was so far from his purpose to bring the Christian religion into contempt, that he intended to place it on a firmer footing. He was, however, found guilty, and sentenced to a year's imprisonment, and a fine of £100. He purchased the liberty of the rules of the king's bench prison, after the expiration of his imprisonment, not being able to pay his fine. He had obtained some money by his publications, which was swallowed up by legal expenses, and he chiefly relied for support on a small annual allowance from his brother, and the contributions of some respectable persons, who regarded him as a man of learning, misled by mysticism and enthusiasm. Solicitations were made for his release by doctor Samuel Clarke; but he declined giving any security not to offend again in a similar way. He was, however, soon after released by death, being carried off by an epidemic disorder in January, 1732-1733, in his sixty-second year. WOOLWICH; a market-town of England, in Kent, on the Thames, eight miles below London; lon. 0° 3′ E.; lat..51° 30' N.; population, in 1821, 17,008. It was formerly only a small village, and owes its consequence to the establishment of a royal dock in the reign of Henry VIII. The dock-yard has been progressively increasing since its establishment, and, in its present state, includes about five furlongs in length by one in breadth; within which space there are two dry-docks, five slips, three mast-ponds, a mould-loft, storehouses of various descriptions, masthouses, sheds for timber, dwellings for the various officers, a very complete smithery, for the manufacture of anchors, &c. This dock-yard is under the direction of a commissioner, who has also the control of that of Deptford; and, during the last war, the number of artificers and laborers employed here amounted to nearly 2000: since the peace, they are reduced to about two thirds of that number. The arsenal at Woolwich, called the Warren, is the grand national depot for every species of ordnance, both military and naval, and contains an immense quantity of guns, gun-carriages, military wagons, and every thing pertaining to the department of the ordnance. The arsenal includes nearly sixty acres, and contains various piles of brick buildings for different uses. The number of artificers, laborers and boys employed is about 3000, exclusive of the convicts, who amount to about 900, generally employed in the most laborious offices. At Woolwich is a royal military academy, instituted in 1719, but not finally arranged till 1741. It is under the direction of the master-general and board of ordnance for the time being; a lieutenant-governor, an inspector, a professor of mathematics, and four masters; a professor of chemistry; a professor of fortification, and two masters; one French master, two drawing masters, a fencing master, a dancing master, &c. The number of pupils, styled cadets, since the peace, has been reduced to 100. They are of the most respectable families; when admitted, must be at least four feet and nine inches high, and not exceed sixteen, nor be under fourteen, years of age. As soon as they are admitted on the establishment, they begin to receive pay, at the rate of £45 12s. per annum. The building is of a castellated form, and was built at the expense of about £150,000. Woolwich contains, also, barracks, a pagoda, used as a repository for models, several hospitals, and other charitable establishments. WooTZ. (See Steel.) WORCESTER; the chief town of Worcestershire, and one of the most ancient cities in England, agreeably situated in a beautiful vale on the eastern banks of the Severn. Being an ancient fortified place, this city had a strong wall, of which some remains may yet be seen. The cathedral is a noble specimen of Gothic simplicity. It was first erected by Ethelred, king of Mercia, in 680, but was burned down and rebuilt in the beginning of the thirteenth century. It suffered considerable damage during the civil war, in the reign of Charles I. Its form is that of a double cross. It is in length, 410 feet; in breadth, 78; and in height, 68 and the tower, which rises, from the centre of the cross aisle, to the altitude of 200 feet, is ornamented at the corners by lofty pinnacles and battlements. The cathedral contains many handsome mon uments, and is adorned with a variety of sculptures. This city suffered much during the wars between the houses of York and Lancaster; but the most remarkable event here was the famous battle between the English army, under Cromwell, and the Scotch, in the cause of Charles II, in 1651. (See Cromwell.' Of the parish churches, there are nine within the walls and two without. Here are various public buildings and charitable institutions, and meeting-houses for various sects. Its hop market is the most considerable in the kingdom. There is a bridge over the Severn, consisting of five arches. The trade of Worcester is considerable. The porcelain and glove manufactures are carried on to a great extent. It sends two members to parliament. Population in 1831, 18,610; 120 miles north-west of London; lon. 2° W.; lat. 52° 10′ N. WORCESTER, John Tiptoft, earl of, a patron of learning, and one of the few literary ornaments of England in the fif teenth century, was born at Everton, or Evaston, in Cambridgeshire, and educated at Baliol college, Oxford. He was the son of lord Tibetot, or Tiptoft and Powys, and was created a viscount and earl of Worcester by Henry VI, who also ap. pointed him lord-deputy of Ireland. By Edward IV he was made knight of the garter, and constituted justice of North Wales for life. Dugdale says he was soon after made constable of the Tower; while others assert that he was twice lord high constable, and twice lord high treasurer. He was also a second time deputy or lieutenant of Ireland, under the duke of Clarence, in which capacity he attainted the earls of Kildare and Desmond for supporting the insurrection against government, and sentenced the latter to be beheaded. On the temporary reverse of fortune experienced by Edward IV and the house of York, in consequence of the junction between the earl of Warwick and the duke of Clarence, the earl of Worcester, the severity of whose judicial proceedings as high constable had rendered him extremely obnoxious to the Lancastrians, became one of the first objects of their vengeance. He endeavored to find security for his person by concealment, but was discovered in a tree in the forest of Weybridge, near Huntingdon, and thence conveyed to London, where he was hastily tried on the accusation of cruelty in his Irish administration, par ticularly towards two infant sons of the earl of Desmond, and condemned to lose his head on Tower hill, on the eighteenth of October, 1470, which sentence was executed accordingly. He was married three times, but left only one son and heir, by his third wife. The earl of Worcester appears to have been a person of considerable learning and of great accomplishments for the age in which he lived. In his return from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, he had passed some time at Venice, Padua and Rome. He was led to Rome by his desire to see the Vatican library, and he there made an elegant oration to pope Pius II. He was a great collector of books, and gave manuscripts of 500 marks value to the university of Oxford. The literary works of this nobleman, as far as we are acquainted with them, are an English translation of Cicero De Amicitia, and of Two Declarations made by Publius Cornelius Scipio and Gayus Flamigneus, Competitors for the Love of Lucrece, both printed by William Caxton; some Orations and Epistles; and an English translation of Cæsar's Commentaries, as touching British affairs, supposed to be printed in the reign of Henry VIII, In the sixth of Edward IV, he drew up Orders for the placing of the Nobility in all Proceedings, and Orders and Statutes for Justs and Triumphs; and in the Ashmolean collection are Ordinances, Statutes and Rules, made by John Tiptofte, Erle of Worces-out, in an army, every night. ter, and Constable of England, by the King's Commandment, at Windsor, 29th May, 6th Edward IV, to be observed in all Justs of Peers within the Realm of England, &c. He is also said to have written a Petition against the Lollards, and an Oration to the Citizens of Padua; and among the manuscripts belonging to Lincoln cathedral is a volume containing about twenty epistles, four of his writing, and the rest addressed to him. the most stupendous Water-commanding Engine, invented by the Right Honorable (and deservedly to be praised and admired) Edw. Somerset, Lord Marquess of Worcester. (See Steam.) In neither of these works does he give any statement of the mode of constructing his engine; but, from his description and account of its effects, it may be inferred that its action depended on the condensation as well as the elastic force of the steam, and consequently that in principle it resembled the modern steam-engine. It seems also that he had actually constructed a machine upon a large scale, though, unfortunately for himself and for the interests of science, he was unable to excite the attention of the public towards his project, and was looked upon by his contemporaries as a visionary speculator His death took place in 1667, at the age of seventy. . WORCESTER, Edward Somerset, marquis of, an English nobleman, celebrated for his scientific studies, and supposed to have been the first inventor of the steamengine. This nobleman engaged in the service of Charles I during the civil war, and, after its termination, spent his time in retirement, and in the cultivation of natural philosophy and mechanics. In 1663, he published a book entitled the Scantlings of One Hundred Inventions, in which he first gave a description of the uses and effects of his engine; and he afterwards published a small pamphlet, called an Exact and True Definition of 22 * WORCESTER; shire town of Worcester county, in Massachusetts. (See Appendix, end of this volume.) WORD. (In the scriptural sense, see Logos; in a philological meaning, see Languages, and Philology.) WORD, OF WATCHWORD, in an army or garrison, is some peculiar word or sentence, by which the soldiers know and distinguish one another in the night, &c., and by which spies and designing persons are discovered. It is used also to prevent surprises. The word is given WORDSWORTH, William, the celebrated founder of what is called the lake school of poetry, was born in 1770, of a respectable family, at Cockermouth, in Cumberland. The first part of his education he received at Hawkshead grammar-school (Lancashire); and the classical knowledge which he acquired there is said to have been more extensive than is usual with boys of his age. While at Hawkshead, he delighted in reading and reciting the poets, and in rambling among the beauti ful scenery of that country. His first at tempt in verse was made at the age of thirteen. In 1787, he removed to Cam bridge, where he was matriculated as a student of St. John's college. At the university he continued a sufficient time to obtain the degree of master of arts; and, in one of the long vacations, he undertook a pedestrian excursion on the continent. The result of his remarks he gave to the public, in 1793, with the title of Descriptive Sketches, in Verse, taken during a Pedestrian Tour in the Italian, Swiss and Savoyard Alps. In the sainų |