VOLTAIC PILE. (See Galvanism.) VOLTAIRE, Francis Marie Arouet de. If any man ever showed the natural sovereignty of the intellect, and its superiority to all earthly splendor, it was this distinguished man, who, in a nation, and at a time, when the learned and scientific were considered in the light of upper domestics of the great, undertook to secure for them an independent station. His influence was felt throughout Europe; and never did a man, by the force of his writings, obtain such power over his nation. Voltaire was born at Chatenay, near Paris, Feb. 20, 1694. His father, Francis Arouet, notary of the Châtelet, and finally treasurer of the chamber of accounts, possessed considerable property, so that he was enabled to give his son an excellent education. Voltaire received his first instruction in the Jesuits' college of Louis XIV., under Porée and Le Jay. Here he displayed talents which warranted the highest expectations. In his third year he was able to repeat the fables of La Fontaine, and, somewhat later, recited, from memory, a poem of Rousseau (La Moisade), before the celebrated Ninon de l'Enclos, who was so much pleased with the talent of the boy, that she left him a legacy of 2000 livres to purchase a library. According to the custom of the time, he was obliged to leave the family name to the eldest son, and therefore assumed that name which has since become so famous. His father wished to see him a lawyer and advocate; but his love of literature and general study did not allow him long to devote himself to the law. He wrote poetry continually, and cultivated his talents in the company of men of much accomplishment and wit, but of little principle; such as Chaulieu, the marquis de la Fare, marshal Villars, the grand prior of Vendome, the prince of Conti, and others. Here he caught the tone of polished society which distinguishes his writings, and which greatly contributed to his influence. His father was displeased with his mode of life, and entreated the marquis of Chateauneuf, French minister to Holland, to take the young Voltaire with him as a page. He consented; but Voltaire fell in love with the daughter of madame Noyer, a refugee in Holland, and was therefore sent back to his family. His father would receive him into favor again only on condition of his resuming the study of the law. A friend of his father, monsieur Caumartin, at length released him from the necessity of pursuing this study, by offering

him a quiet residence on his estate, where Voltaire became intimate with the elder Caumartin, who awakened in him a great admiration of Henry IV, and of Sully, and gave him a lively idea of the court of Louis XIV. Hence originated the Henriade and the Siècle de Louis XIV In 1716, he was imprisoned in the Bastile, on the charge of having written a satire against the government. He remained in confinement a year and a half, and, in this situation, planned a poem upon the league, the result of which was the Henriade. He likewise improved his tragedy Edipus, which was brought upon the stage in 1718, and was performed forty-five times in one year. Meanwhile, the poet had been released from prison in consequence of the real author of the satire having disclosed himself, but had been banished from Paris. Now, however, in consequence of the regent, the duke of Orleans, being delighted with the Edipus, he was allowed to return. His father himself was so much pleased with the representation of this play, that he embraced his son with tears in his eyes, and from. this time left him to his own inclination Voltaire now fell passionately in love with the marchioness of Villars, so that his attention was withdrawn, for a time, from: poetry; but, having recovered from this passion, he wrote the play of Artémire which was unsuccessful. It was afterwards brought upon the stage, in 1725 under the name of Marianne, when it met with much applause, and was often repeated. In 1722, he accompanied madame de Rupelmonde to Brussels, where he became acquainted with Jean Baptiste Rousseau; but the characters of the two were so different, that their acquaintance terminated in a complete separation. In 1723, Voltaire was engaged in completing the Henriade, which, about this period, appeared for the first time in London, under the name of the League, but without the consent of Voltaire, and in a very imperfect state. The president Hénault, and other friends, disturbed him so much by their criticisms upon this production, that he threw it into the fire. Hénault snatched it out, with these words: "Your poem is like your hero: notwithstanding his faults, he was a great king, and the best of men." In 1726, Voltaire was again imprisoned, at the age of thirty-two years, in the Bastile. He had offended the chevalier de Rohan, a proud young nobleman, who, in consequence, caused him to be beaten by his servant. Voltaire now learned to fence, and challenged the

him at certain hours, and ad a table and equipage at his command. He spent every day two hours with the king, and revised his literary productions, when, as he himself said, he never failed to praise the good, and quietly to strike out the bad. But this friendship continued hardly a year. A quarrel between Maupertuis, president of the Berlin academy, and a mathematician named Konig, in which Voltaire took part, drew upon him the displeasure of Frederic, who caused his Akakia, a satire upon Maupertuis, to be burnt in the presence of the writer, and sent him his dismission. Voltaire returned to the king the chamberlain's key and the cross of the order which had been conferred on him, with some verses, in which he compared himself to a lover who sends back the portrait of his mistress; but the king soon restored them. Voltaire now made a visit to the duchess of Gotha. During his absence, Maupertuis succeeded in depriving him of the favor of the king, and he concluded to return to France. When he reached Frankfort on the Maine, he was stopped by order of Frederic, because he had with him various productions of the king, who feared that he would use them to his prejudice. He was likewise compelled to resign the chamberlain's key, his order, and his promise of a pension of 22,000 livres. The breach between Frederic and Voltaire was now irreparable. Voltaire wished to reside in Paris; but his Pucelle d'Orléans had excited so much displeasure, that he was not allowed to remain in the capital. He now resided for some years at Colmar, where he wrote the Orphan of China, and bought a country seat in the neighborhood of Geneva. Jean Jacques Rousseau sent him his wellknown treatise which had gained the prize of the academy of Dijon. Voltaire returned him an answer which, among many flattering remarks, contained the following sentence: "When I read your treatise, I desire to creep upon all-fours." This ridicule made the author of Emile his irreconcilable enemy. Soon after, Voltaire took part in the political contentions then prevailing in Geneva; and, having become involved in disputes with many of the principal people, he thought it best to leave the place. He therefore purchased the estate of Ferney, in the Pays de Gex, where he resided the rest of his life, with his niece, madame Denis. He drew manufacturers, and other settlers, into his district, obtained for them, through his influence, important advantages, and 3

VOL. XIII.

reigned like a petty prince among his subjects. Here he erected a new and elegant church, with the inscription Deo erexit Voltaire. A decided enemy of tyranny and oppression, he afforded aid and protection to many persecuted persons; among others, to the family of Jean Calas, who had fallen a victim to fanaticism. At that time, he wrote his masterly treatise upon toleration. The granddaughter of the great Corneille also experienced his bounty. In the numerous writings which he composed in this retreat, his free spirit employed the weapons of ridicule, and the boldest eloquence, against all which contravened his ideas of freedom and independence. To the clergy he was particularly hostile, on account of their intolerance and persecuting spirit. But he often injured the cause of religion itself while he attacked its servants. His motives, moreover, were not always of the highest kind. In 1757, the first edition of his works appeared, prepared under his own eye. It reconciled him with Frederic the Great. This monarch renewed his correspondence with Voltaire, and sent him his own bust, of porcelain, with the inscription Viro immortali. The empress Catharine of Russia sent him, likewise, splendid presents, accompanied by the most flattering letters. In return for an ivory box, made by herself, and for her instructions (prepared for the direction of a law commission which she had instituted), he sent her a bracelet netted by his own hands. In 1769, a medal was stamped in honor of him, the inscription on which was a verse taken from the Henriade: Il ôte aux nations le bandeau de l'erreur. Some French literati, together with Frederic, erected a statue to him. with the inscription Statue erigée à Voltaire par les hommes de lettres ses compatriotes; and Louis XV said, "He deserves it." All strangers of distinction who passed by Ferney stopped to testify their esteem for this remarkable man. Joseph II only did not visit him. Nevertheless, Voltaire was by no means happy. Too much accustomed to the constant admiration of the world, he soon became weary of his quiet life, and went, even in his advanced age (February, 1778), once more to Paris. Here he found many admirers, who adored him, and many bitter enemies. He was sensible of the dislike entertained towards him; and, therefore, when stopped by the officers of the customs, with the inquiry if he had any con traband goods with him, he replied, "No, no; there is nothing contraband here but

myself.” The inquiry of the king, on his arrival, if the decree of the parliament was still in force against him, made him anxious; but nothing further was done to molest him. The French academy sent three of their members to welcome him, though, in similar cases, it was customary to send but one. The actors waited upon him in a body: "We have come," said they, "to beseech you to inspire us with your odes." "I live only for you and through you" was his answer-a proof that he considered his dramas as his chief productions; and, in truth, dramatic works were his last labors. He wrote his Tancrède in the sixty-sixth year of his age. The calls upon him were so constant that he felt himself oppressed by them. "I am suffocated," said he, "but it is with roses." Franklin came, with his grandson, to see Voltaire: "My son," said he, "fall upon your knees before this great man." Voltaire gave the boy his blessing, with the words "God and freedom." He had brought with him a new tragedy, Irène, which was performed on the 16th of May. The royal family was present, and the piece was received with unbounded applause. The French academy sent him their gratulations on this occasion, and placed his bust by the side of Corneille. At the sixth representation, he came into the theatre; and, when he had sat down in his box, a player entered, and presented him with a laurel wreath; and, at the conclusion of the piece, his bust was also crowned in the theatre. All these excitements, together with incessant literary labors, and the change from his accustomed manner of life, affected his health so much that it seemed as if he could not live much longer. He perceived this plainly: "I have come to Paris," he said, "to find my glory and my grave." He could not sleep; and a large dose of opium, which he took without the advice of his physician, is thought to have hastened his death. When his tenants heard of his sickness, they wished to go to Paris, and carry him, in a litter, to Ferney. He resided in Paris with the marquis de Villette. The latter sent to the principal clergyman of St. Sulpice, to induce him to beg Voltaire to submit to the ceremony which Catholic Christians undergo on leaving the world. The circumstances of the case have been related differently; but it is certain that Voltaire died without receiving the sacrament, in the eightyfifth year of his age, May 30, 1778. The archbishop of Paris is said to have denied the corpse Christian burial; and it was

therefore interred secretly at Scellières, a Bernardine abbey, between Nogent and Troyes. By a decree of the national assembly (1791), his remains were placed in the Pantheon, in Paris, near those of J. J. Rousseau and other great men.-The exterior of Voltaire was quite characteristic. In his countenance, as has been said, there was a mixture of the eagle and the monkey; and, in character, he united the boldness of the one with something of the malice of the other. He was impetuous, irritable, sensitive, but also mild, compassionate, benevolent, cheerful, and lively from principle. With noble views and principles, his actions were not always the most praiseworthy; and many of his good deeds did not flow from the purest sources. He had something vacillating in his character; and, notwithstanding his hatred of prejudice, he frequently bowed to it in a manner which did him little honor. From vanity he flattered the great, and often sought their company for the same reason. His fame did not become great till after his retirement from court. He was too selfish to inspire love, and avarice is said to have had much ascendency over him. Yet he was, in his latter years, the friend of the poor, and the protector of the oppressed. Notwith standing all his admirers, he gained no friend. He had great talents, but not an elevated character; and his writings want the charm which only a great soul can give. Nevertheless, he often acted nobly. The abbé Desfontaines, to whom he had shown much kindness, published, without any authority, an edition of the Henriade from a very imperfect manuscript. Desfontaines became unfortunate, repented of what he had done, and Voltaire became again his benefactor. Being arrested on account of a dishonorable accusation, the abbé owed to Voltaire's influence with madam de Prie his freedom, his honor, and perhaps his life. Desfontaines recompensed this favor by a severe criticism and a bitter lampoon. To a peasant, deprived, by an unjust sentence, of his land, who applied to Voltaire for assistance, he gave 3000 livres, and invited him to settle in Ferney. In company, Voltaire was agreeable, polite, and a complete courtier. The activity of his temperament was so great that he often labored all night. Even in his eightieth year, he worked fourteen hours a day. Among his works, his dramas hold the first place. He is the worthy rival of Racine and Corneille, and his pieces are still favorites with the French. Notwithstanding his great wit

however, Voltaire was not distinguished in comedy The Henriade has many striking passages, but wants true epic characters, and is faulty in its plan. Among his historical works, the Siècle de Louis XIV et XV, and the Histoire de Charles XII, the Essai sur l'Histoire générale,sur les Maurs et l'Esprit des Nations, abound in penetrating views. His merits are not those of thorough investigation, but of striking and happy description, and sagacious observation. His prevailing defect is the exaggerated estimation of the superiority of the French over other modern nations. His philosophical romances, treatises, smaller poems, narratives, dialogues, &c., show a comprehensive spirit, and great felicity of execution. In the department of fugitive pieces, he is unique. As a prose writer, he is unequalled, so beautiful and polished is his expression, so copious his wit. Among all the French writers, he, perhaps, displays, in the fullest degree, the peculiarities of his nation. The accomplished marchioness du Chatelet, as we have already said, was his intimate friend: hence the Lettres inédites de la Marq. du Chatelet et Supplément à la Correspondance de Voltaire avec le Roi de Prusse, etc., avec des Notes histor. (Paris, 1818), is an important addition to his biography. See La Vie de Voltaire par Condorcet; also La Vie de Voltaire par M. [Mercier] (Geneva, 1788); Examen des Ouvrages de M. de Voltaire par M. Linguet (Brussels, 1788); Vie littéraire de Voltaire rédigée par de Luchet. The abbe Duvernet describes him more particularly as a man, and a private man, in his Vie de Voltaire suivie d'Anecdotes qui composent sa Vie privée (Paris, 1797); see also Mémoires sur Voltaire et sur ses Ouvrages par Wagnière et Longchamp, ses Secrétaires (1826, two vols.). Wagnière was directed by the empress Catharine,who bought Voltaire's library, to arrange it in St. Petersburg, as it had stood in Ferney. The Vie de Voltaire, by Mazure, is very partial. His works were published by Beaumarchais, at Kehl, 1784, seq. in 70 vols. 4to and 8vo, and 92 vols. 12mo; and, by Palissot, with notes, at Paris, 1796, seq. The Pièces inédites appeared at Paris in 1820. Since 1817, seven editions of the works of Voltaire have been published (the cheapest by Touquet, 1820). In 1823, some unpublished works of his were found in the imperial hermitage, at Petersburg: the most important are a bitter commentary upon Rousseau's Contrat Social, and a tale; the latter has since been published. Dupont has lately pub

lished an edition of Voltaire's works, in 70 volumes. A tolerably complete, but perhaps not entirely impartial review of the numerous literary contests of Voltaire, is given in the Tableau philosophique de l'Esprit de M. de Voltaire (Geneva, 1771).

VOLTERRA; a town of Tuscany, twenty-four miles south-west of Florence, with 5000 inhabitants. It is the see of a bishop, and has a public seminary of education. The ancient Volaterra was one of the twelve principal cities of Etruria, and had 100,000 inhabitants. Some Etruscan monuments still remain: among these are its walls, with a gate, dedicated to Hercules; and the fish-pond, constructed of enormous blocks of stone. (See Etruria.)

VOLUME (Latin volumen). The volume of a body has reference to the space which it occupies. To have a correct idea of this, imagine a body immersed entirely in a liquid, which neither changes nor penetrates it. If it is now taken out, and we add new liquid, to raise the contents of the vessel as high as they were when the body was immersed, the amount of the newly-added liquid will give us the volume of the body. Thus we have a simple means of ascertaining the volume of small bodies, the irregularity of which presents some difficulty in the way of determining it by ordinary means. Volume must not be confounded with mass. the volume also depends the difference of the absolute and specific gravity. (q. v.)

VOLUMNIA. (See Coriolanus.)

On

VOLUNTEER, in military language; one who serves in the army, or undertakes a particular duty without being obliged so to do: thus officers not unfrequently take part in a campaign, as volunteers. When an enterprise of peculiar danger is to be undertaken, as the assault of a formidable battery, the taking of a square, &c., a call is made for volunteers; and those who survive receive rewards of money, or medals, swords, &c., or promotion. Sometimes there are also bodies of troops consisting entirely of volunteers; e. g. the Prussian volunteer riflemen, attached to each battalion in the campaigns of 1813, '14 and '15, and the volunteer companies of citizens raised, in 1794, in England. These mostly laid down their arms in 1801; but when the war broke out again in 1803, and the intention of the French to effect a landing was nounced, the inhabitants of Great Britain rose anew, and the ministers spoke of nearly 500,000 volunteers being in arms. VOLUTES. (See Architecture,vol. i, p. 340.) VON; a German preposition, meaning

an