7. The Senams, or Megalithic Temples of Tarhuna, Tripoli. By H. SWAINSON COWPER, F.S.A. This remarkable series of sites, which hitherto has been practically unknown, formed the sole object of the author's short journey in March. In all, nearly sixty sites were visited, and photographs of them taken. The largest number were found on a green plateau in the Tarhuna hills, but others exist in the surrounding wadis. In some places, indeed, they are so numerous that there are few hill-tops which do not bear traces of one of these temples, so that the author had to content himself with an examination of those which seemed most important. In most cases were found large rectangular enclosures of excellent masonry, though generally very ruinous, and often subdivided by lines of short square columns, occasionally surmounted by rudely designed but excellently worked capitals. Within the enclosure walls, or in line with them, were always to be found large Megalithic structures resembling the Stonehenge trilithons, but the jambs of which are often formed of two or three stones instead of one. These (the Senams proper) are carefully dressed on the side facing the enclosure, and in the jambs are singular square perforations and angle-cut holes, which appear to have been formed to support wooden structures. The Senams rest on footing stones, and vary in height from 6 to 15 feet; but the average width between the jambs is only 16 inches. In front of some were found massive stone altars, carefully grooved, and flush with the ground. A few sculptures, the subjects of which are Phallic and show Roman influence, were also noticed, in one case a Senam itself being thus ornamented. There is, indeed, much evidence to show that the Romans occupied and utilised these sites without knocking down the Senams or destroying the form of worship. Roman work is mixed up in nearly every case with the work of the Senam builders. A feature worth notice is the existence of carpentry forms, which would point to the district having at one time been densely timbered; and to the destruction of these woods (probably by the Arabs) is no doubt due the waterless and povertystricken condition of the country at this day. It is to be noticed, that if we except the Stonehenge trilithons, there appear to be no other Megalithic remains, even in Mediterranean countries, with which we can compare the Tripoli series or which show an equal mastery in the art of masonry. In most cases the Senams appear to have stood free in their enclosures, and were no doubt symbolical and connected with rites of some sort. It is remarkable that many Babylonian seals show a figure exactly like a Senam placed in the rear of an altar before which stands an adoring priest. It seems possible indeed that in the Senams we have symbolic effigies akin to the Asherah' so often alluded to in the Old Testament, and which was worshipped in connection with Molech and Baal. Asherah, the symbol of the goddess of fertility, would probably take some such form, and from such a worship sprang no doubt the widely spread customs of squeezing between columns and stones to cure diseases. Further evidence in favour of these being temples of a form of Baal worship may be found in their situations, always on hill-tops, essentially high places,' and possibly also in the character of the carvings. 8. Report on the Kitchen Midden at Hastings.-See Reports, p. 500 SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. The following Reports and Papers were read: 1. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada.-See Reports, p. 522. 2. The Samoyads of the Arctic Tundras. By ARTHUR MONTEFIORE, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Distribution of the Samoyads.-This primitive group of the Ural-Altaic family may be found within an area of great extent and very various nature. Samoyads may still be observed on the northern slopes of the Altai range; they still dwell in the afforested valleys of the Yenisei and the Ob, and they continue to thrive on the frozen treeless plains of Siberia and Arctic Russia. From the ultimate sources of the Yenisei in the heart of Asia, they spread northward until their advance is stayed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean. From the Khatanga river in the far east they reach westward into Europe, even to the shores of the White Sea. And we have the authority of Mr. F. G. Jackson (The Great Frozen Land, cap. vi.) for saying that they are still migrating westward-a small group having recently settled in Russian Lapland, and already contributed to the modification of Lapp habits and fashions. The Arctic Samoyad.-The Samoyad of the Arctic Tundras is the least changed, and perhaps the most interesting of the whole family. Until recently less has been known of his ways and means, of his ideas and morality, of the country in which he lives, and the adaptation of himself to his environment, than of the other branches of the same group. The very impoverishment of his resources has calculated to make him more characteristic and distinct. Ethnology.-Undoubtedly the term Ural-Altaic is conveniently applied to the four great Mongoloid groups-the Tungus, the true Mongols, the Turks, and the Finns; and the Finnic group may also be properly regarded as made up of the Ugrian races, the Permian, the Bulgarian, the true Finns, and the Samoyads. From another point of view, however, it would be well to include the Samoyads in the Finnic subdivision. For the Samoyads are more nearly allied to the Finns than Ugrians, Permians, and Bulgarians; their speech is Finn, their customs related: and the true Finns, as well as the quasi-Finns, possess in numerous instances survivals and traces of what is to this date in full development among the Samoyads. Name of Samoyad.-This can be shown to be not of Russian but of Permian and even Finnic origin, and to mean not 'eaters of themselves,' or 'cannibals,' but 'swamp-dwellers.' The old Russian word for them, then, does not suggest cannibalistic custom, but may be translated 'eaters of raw flesh,' which they are to this day. Language. Closely allied to the Finnic tongue, the Samoyad speech shows, of all the Ural-Altaic languages, the highest development in agglutination. This is carried so far that it almost reaches inflection. Samoyad, indeed, may be regarded as a nexus between the inflexional Indo-Germanic and the agglutinative Mongolian. Religious Ideas.-Although professing Christianity and the Greek Church [owing to the zeal with which every Russian promotes the cause of his Church], the Samoyads have not relinquished faith in their old gods, and still cherish a cryptopaganism. The impersonal Num, creator of the universe, dwells in the heavens; the rain and snow, heat and cold, thunder and lightning, are expressions of his care for the men he created, as well as of his moods. The sun is his highest form of manifestation; the wide arch of the sky bears witness to the immensity of his being; the countless stars to his far-seeing and intimate knowledge. More material, however, is the idea that the coloured bands of the rainbow form the border of his robe. Veneration of the supernatural is also shown in the cult of the natural: curiously shaped trees, large stones, somewhat resembling the human form, and even roughly shaped stakes of wood, are locally revered. This veneration is also extended to rude models of these stakes, which are made sufficiently small to carry about, and are called Chaddi. Morality. As a rule, and, of course, wherever they are professed Christians, the Samoyads are husbands of one wife. In Yalmal and other remote places 'Multi-coloured bands of cloth are inserted in the panitsa of the Samoyad. two wives are not uncommon. The offence of adultery is rare, and fornication is not approved. The temperament of the Samoyad is amiable; he is hospitable, cheery, and even-tempered. Sentiment is hardly known to him, and he has no good reason, or hope of future reward for the honest or benevolent acts he performs. Idleness is often necessitated by circumstances, but the naturally active man is discernible even then. The Samoyad is capable of politeness and of sobriety, though the Russian traders do their best to destroy the latter virtue. The Samoyad is neighbourly; the young are obedient and respectful; and the old are tenderly cared for. Inexpressibly filthy in their customs, the Samoyads exhibit as a race social virtues of a high order. Physical Appearance. The average stature of the men is 5 ft. 1 in., and of the women 4 ft. 9 ins. The head is wide and low; the face broad and short; the forehead usually receding; the eyebrows pencilled and arched; the nose is flat, but straight; the prominence of the mouth is not marked, but the lips are thick. The eyes are wide apart and oblique; their colour is black and their size small; the lids are full. The colour of the skin is yellowish-brown, while the cheeks of young people are frequently ruddy. The hair, which is cylindrical and coarse, is jet black. The moustache is always slight, and there usually depends from the chin a weak thin beard. The highest English authority on the Samoyads is Mr. F. G. Jackson, and in his work on the subject (The Great Frozen Land) he tells us that the physique of the Samoyad is sturdy: the shoulders being broad, the legs stout, though short, and the arms highly developed. The head is out of proportion to the body in its largeness, and the neck is short and thick. The sense of hearing is extremely acute, and the sight remarkably keen; the power of grasp is considerable. The Samoyads run well, and are capable of enduring great fatigue, and sustaining arduous exercise for a long period. Occupations.-These are chiefly hunting and fishing. To enable them to do the former, they break and train the reindeer until these animals have reached a high stage of excellence as draught beasts. The sledge, too, is perfectly adapted to the physical difficulties presented by the Tundra. The reindeer is the staff of life on the Tundra. Its skin makes the tent or 'choom' which fends the wild weather from his master; it also forms the chief fabric of his clothing. Its body constitutes the main food of the Samoyad, and its hide and sinews his harness, cordage, and thread. It is the only animal which is fitted to draw burdens across the Tundra, a quaking bog in summer, a howling frozen plain in winter. In the latter season, the Samoyad hunts, attacks, and snares the white bear, brown bear, sable, fox, lynx, and other fur-bearing animals; in summer, he catches enormous numbers of birds geese, swans, duck, &c. He brings his furs to the market before the melting of the snow makes it impossible for him to take heavy loads across the Tundra; but a contingent is usually left behind to complete the season's harvest. These the Samoyad rejoins before the rivers burst free from the ice, and the whole country becomes an impassable swamp. Notes on Marriage Customs, Social Usages, Funerals, Folk-lore, Weapons and Instruments, and Costume, were also included in the paper. 3. On Cannibalism. By Captain S. L. HINDE. Captain Hinde, who has been travelling and fighting for some years in the Congo basin, and has therefore had many almost unprecedented opportunities of observing the natives, gave the following information with regard to cannibalism :— Almost all the races in the Congo basin practise cannibalism, and though in some parts it is prevented by the presence of white civilisation, in others it seems to be on the increase. An extensive traffic in human flesh prevails in many districts, slaves being kept and sold as an article of food. The different tribes have various and horrible methods of preparing the flesh for eating; in some instances, before the death of the victim, certain tribes of the Bangala race themselves acknowledge that they break the arms and legs of the victim, and place the body, thus mutilated and still living, in water for two or three days, on the supposition that this pre-mortem treatment renders the flesh more palatable. There are also distinct tribal preferences for various parts of the body, and it is remarkable that, contrary to an ignorant yet very generally accepted theory, the negro man-eater never eats flesh raw, and certainly takes human flesh as food purely and simply, and not from any religious or superstitious reasons. 4. Report on the Physical and Mental Defects of Children. 5. Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. The following Papers and Report were read: 1. Horns of Honour and Dishonour and Safety. By F. T. ELWORTHY. 2. On the Origin of the Dance. By Mrs. LILLY GROVE, F.R.G.S. The study of the history of the dance throws a light on manners and customs of various races, on connection between nations geographically remote, and especially on primitive religion. After a long study of the subject, the conclusion arrived at is that most dances were once a form of worship, or at least a form of magic. Many myths relate that the deities not only delighted in seeing the dance, but also enjoyed performing in it. Promises of a heaven in which there will be much dancing and many dancers are held out by several religions, even by monotheist ones, and even by some Christian Fathers. All ritual dances are grave, reverent, and symbolical of joy, or gratitude, or sorrow. The object of this Paper is to point out that most dances have a sacred origin, and to show what survivals we have of these dances. Three forms are chosen in support of the theory-the weapon dances, the ritual dances, and the funeral and death dances. Weapons were once worshipped and held sacred, hence numerous sword dances in all parts of the globe-in the Himalayas, in the Andes of Bolivia, in Scotland, in Spain, in Scandinavia, generally in mountain districts. Ritual dances are so numerous that a choice has to be made, and only those of Christian worship will be considered; among those the Los Seises dance of the Seville Cathedral and the dancing procession of Echternach, which latter probably arose from a penitential vow. Medicine dances belong generally to the ritual, for the mystery or medicine man is usually also the priest. Funeral dances are world-wide among pagans and Christians; they originate in what the author of The Golden Bough' calls sympathetic magic, they are often a form of exorcism, or of propitiation of death, or arise from fear of the soul of the departed. The dance being a form of worship of the Deity, eventually also becomes a form of reverence towards the departed. Pagans mostly honour aged men, chiefs, and priests by such a funeral dance while Christians perform funeral dances to rejoice over the death and consequent delivery from evil of a young person who has died in a state of innocence. Parallels have been made between the Lemuric' dances of the Roman Empire and the dance macatre, but the parallel is not complete; in England the latter was called the 'Doleful Dance,' also the Shaking of the Sheets.' Churchyards used to be the most favourite places for the dance, and the Welsh danced in their graveyards after the conclusion of the sermon until quite recently. At one time of the world's history the dance must have been exclusively an act of homage towards the Deity, or the ministers and earthly representatives of the Deity. As nations grow out of infancy and become more artificial and affected, the dance loses in significance. 3. Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee.-See Reports, p. 509. 4. On Ethnographical Observations in East Aberdeenshire.1 In August last, observations were made by the Buchan Field Club on the people at the Mintlaw Gathering, in the centre of north-east Aberdeenshire. At the entrance, the colour of hair and eyes, and shape of nose of 2,309 males and 649 females were noted. In a tent in the grounds measurements were made of the height (standing and sitting), and length and breadth of head, of 169 adult native males. The people belonged to the agricultural class. The gate observations gave the following gross percentages:-Hair-fair 97, red 57, brown 64-4, dark 20.2; eyes dark 26.2, medium 49'0, light 24.8; noses-straight 564, concave 19.9, high bridge or Roman 14.8, sinuous or wavy 67, and aquiline or Jew 2.2. In the gate observations, it was found that in the majority of cases light eyes were associated with fair hair, and dark eyes with dark hair. The ratio of light to dark eyes changed gradually from fair hair, through red and brown hair, to dark hair. On analysing the combinations of hair colour with the different types of noses, it was found that the sum of the fair and red hair associated with each type of nose was, in each case, almost the same, but the number of cases with dark hair was least with concave noses and greatest with aquiline noses. This appears to indicate that one of the primitive race-types had fair hair, light eyes, and a concave nose. This agrees with the Germanic or Canstadt type. The extreme cephalic indexes obtained in the tent measurements were 86 and 70; but the most usual indexes were 77 and 79. The diagrams of head breadths and lengths, heights, and cephalic indexes all show two principal maxima near the centre, with at least two smaller maxima at the sides. The prevailing type in the district has brown hair, medium eyes, and a straight nose; but this appears to be a mixed type, sprung from the mixture of a dolichocephalic fair race with two dark races, one dolichocephalic and tall, and the other brachycephalic and short. 5. On the Suffolk Dialect. By C. G. DE BETHAM. 6. General Conclusions on Folk-lore. By EDWARD CLODD. 7. Illustrations of Folk Lore. By Professor A. C. HADDON. 1 A full account will be published in the Transactions of the Buchan Field Club. |