former. The peaks and towers of the arctic icebergs are supposed to have been formed by the influence of ocean-currents wearing away the softer part of the ice mass under water until the natural action of gravitation causes them to upset. But why have the antarctic icebergs a different form, for there are great currents in the antarctic waters? And icebergs which have reached as far north as the south of New Zealand maintain this antarctic character. I can see no other reason for this dissimilarity between the bergs of the north and those of the south, but that the arctic icebergs as a rule must pass through climates which in temperature rapidly change from one extreme to another, and that they take much longer time in floating southwards than the antarctic icebergs do in moving northwards.

2. The Oceanography of the North Sea. By H. N. DICKSON, F.R.S.E.

This paper gives some account of recent physical work in the North Atlantic, the North Sea and the Baltic, in which the Swedish, German, Danish, Norwegian and British Governments have co-operated. The surface phenomena at different seasons are discussed, a special report on that section of the joint work having been drawn up by the author.

The importance of further research, especially in the interests of our fishing industries, is pointed out, and an international scheme, due to Professor Pettersson of Stockholm, described.

3. Oceanic Circulation. By Dr. JOHN MURRAY, F.R.S.E.

4. The Maps used by Herodotus.

By J. L. MYRES, M.A.

The geographical digressions in the History of Herodotus are intended to supply the place of an atlas, and can be partially reinterpreted into pictorial form. That such pictorial maps were used, even before Herodotus's time, is clear from v. 49. Herodotus's descriptions are intentionally diagrammatic, and only give skeleton-outlines, on which the details are understood to be filled in. The general proportions are indicated, not by formal latitude and longitude (ascribed to Eratosthenes), but (1) by lists of places which are in the same straight line (ii. 34, iv. 181 ff.), and by columns of names which run up and down or across the map (iv. 37, v. 49), which is thus subdivided into rectangular areas (iv. 37, 99), or parallel strips (iv. 181); (2) by the presumption that a general symmetry is maintained in the distribution of land and water N. and S. of a natural equator' (ii. 26, 33 ; iii. 115; iv. 36, 37).

This equator is indicated in two different real-latitudes in the different digressions, and these two equators' are associated with different principal N. and S. meridians.

Hence we may infer that Herodotus used two distinct maps based upon independent traditions and explorations, each best adapted to illustrate a different section-namely, the Greek and the Persian halves' of the known world—but not consistent with one another in the parts where they overlap.

A. The Ionian navigating-chart of the Mediterranean and Euxine: an early edition is used by Aristagoras of Miletos in v. 49. Its principal meridian lies through the mouth of the Nile, the Cilician Gates, Sinope, and the mouth of the Danube; its 'equator' is the line of the Royal Road, extended from Miletos on the Mæander to the ford of the Euphrates, produced westwards through the Pillars of Herakles, and eastwards (a) by Aristagoras, down the Choaspes conceived as flowing east, past Susa into the Eastern Ocean; (b) by Herodotus himself superimposed on the Pactyas equator of Map B.

B. The chart founded on Phoenician and other Oriental sources, and completed by Skylax of Karyanda, as a survey for Darius of the Persian empire. Principal meridian: a line of nationalities from the mouth of the Choaspes to the mouth of

the Phasis (iv. 37) taken as parallel with the Euphrates-Tigris basin, and perhaps representing the meridian either of Susa or of Ecbatana. From this project westward two promontories-Asia Minor and Arabia-washed respectively on their outward sides by the Euxine and the Red Sea. Arabia in theoretical geography leaves off' at the Isthmus of Suez, as Asia Minor does at the Dardanelles, but is 'practically found to be continuous' with Libya (iv. 39). Between the Peninsula lies the Mediterranean' Sea, with Cyprus in its axis (cf. v. 49); the Equator bisects the Mediterranean from the Pillars of Herakles, through Cyprus, to the Phoenician coast; thence (probably through Ecbatana) down the Pactyas river (perhaps the Ganges) into the Eastern Ocean. The southern coast line of Asia is determined by the voyage of Skylax (iv. 44); the northern is inferred thence by symmetry, and accommodated to the known Caspian (iv. 40).

The current controversy as to the frontiers of the continents refers also to these same maps (iv. 36, 39, 41, 45, 197), and to the map of Hecataeus (iv. 45), and is explained, together with the distortion of the eastern half of the known world, by the difficulty of apportioning a circular world among three traditionally equal continents, one of which, Libya, has since been determined to occupy only one quadrant of the circle, and to be bounded by the S. half meridian and the W. half equator, while the opposite quadrant remains still practically unknown.

5. On the Sixth International Geographical Congress, London, 1895. By MAJOR LEONARD DARWIN, Sec. R.G.S.

A short historical account of the Congress may be usefully included in the proceedings of the Section, so as to make them a complete record of the scientific

year.

Five international geographical congresses have been held in various European centres during the last twenty-five years, but this is the first time that this international gathering has assembled in England. The Royal Geographical Society took the initiative in the matter of organisation, and the President of the Royal Geographical Society, Mr. Clements Markham, was, according to precedent, nominated President of the Congress, Mr. J. S. Keltie and Dr. H. R. Mill being appointed Secretaries. An exhibition was arranged in connection with the Congress which, whilst it entailed much labour on Mr. Ravenstein, Mr. Coles, and Mr. Thomson, who organised it, proved an attractive feature of the meeting.

The Congress was formally opened on the evening of Friday, July 26, by H.R.H. the Duke of York, one of the honorary presidents. On the following day the President delivered his opening address, in which he reviewed the present position of geographical science. In the afternoon two sections met. The question of surveying by photography was dealt with in one section, whilst in the other a very interesting discussion on education took place. Professor E. Levasseur discussed the French educational system, and pointed out the desirability of making geography less a matter of memory, which could only be done by making it embrace a wider area of thought. Dr. Lehmann and Mr. Herbertson advocated higher training for geographical teachers, the latter pointing out that instruction in geography in England in secondary schools was even in a worse position than in primary schools. Mr. H. J. Mackinder, in opening the discussion, showed that in England we are far behind both France and Germany in University and in secondary geographical training, and suggested the establishment of a geographical institute in London. Mr. H. Yule Oldham spoke in favour of the development of geography at Oxford and Cambridge. A small committee drafted the following resolution, which was afterwards adopted by the Congress: 'The attention of this International Congress having been drawn by the British members to the educational efforts being made by the British Geographical Societies, the Congress desires to express its hearty sympathy with such efforts, and to place on record its opinion that in every country provision should be made for higher education in geography, either in the Universities or otherwise.'

Monday, July 30, was devoted in great part to the polar regions. Dr. G. 1895.

3 c

Neumayer dwelt on the great scientific advantages of antarctic research, especially with regard to terrestrial magnetism. He urged international co-operation as the only means for securing adequate results. In the discussion which followed, he was supported by the great weight of the authority of Sir Joseph Hooker and Dr. John Murray, and a resolution advocating the necessity of antarctic exploration by an expedition before the close of the present century was unanimously passed by the Congress. Arctic travel was discussed, the first two papers being by Admiral A. H. Markham and General Greely. Herr S. A. Andrée's bold proposal to reach the north pole by means of a balloon attracted most attention. His scheme consists in filling a balloon at some convenient spot within the arctic circle, and then waiting for a favourable wind before setting forth. Experiments made by him have proved that, by the aid of drag ropes and sails, balloons can be made to deviate from the direction of the wind as much as 27° on an average, and he pointed out that the arctic regions were especially favourable for such operations because of the equable temperature, the absence of gales, and the nature of the surface of the ground.

The sections which met in the afternoon were concerned with physical geo. graphy and geodesy. Papers were read on the Modification of the Normandy Coasts, by M. S. Lennier, and on the Periodic Variations of French Glaciers, by Prince Roland Bonaparte. In the geodesy section, M. Charles Lallemand gave some account of the work of the French surveys, and papers were read by General J. T. Walker, Colonel Holdich, Mr. de Smidt, and Dr. Gill, on the geodetic work of the Indian and Cape of Good Hope Survey Departments.

On Tuesday the general meeting of the Congress was devoted to receiving reports on matters referred from the last Congress. The most important subject was Professor Penck's proposed map of the world. The report of the Commission was unanimously adopted by the Congress. It stated that the production of a map of the earth is exceedingly desirable; that a scale of 1: 1,000,000 is especially suited for that purpose; and that the meridian of Greenwich and the metre be accepted for this map. The last statement is of peculiar importance in having the warm support of the French members of the Commission.

Professor Brückner presented a Report on a Scheme for an International Bibliography of Geography, and a resolution was passed, remitting to the Bureau of the Congress the study of this question. Mr. Frank Campbell read a paper, in which he proposed that each Government should annually issue a proper register of the literature of that country issued during the year in a form suitable to the requirements of bibliography; and a resolution dealing with this subject was passed-That this Congress expresses its approval of the principle of State Printed Registration of Literature as the true foundation of National and International Bibliography, and approves the appointment of an International Committee to further the said object; the constitution of the committee to rest with the Bureau of the International Geographical Congress.'

The sectional meetings were devoted to oceanography and geographical orthography and definitions; and a resolution was passed-That an International Committee be appointed to determine how far agreement can be arrived at as to the mode of writing foreign names.'

On Wednesday the question as to 'How far is tropical Africa suitable for development by white races?' was raised and produced a most interesting debate. Sir John Kirk commenced by reading a paper in which he distinguished between areas where true colonisation might be possible, and areas where white men might reside temporarily to superintend the labour of natives. After discussing fully the conditions necessary to render colonisation possible, he expressed the belief that there existed in tropical Africa considerable areas where the climate was such as to enable Europeans to become indigenous, and where the conditions as to health were probably not prohibitive, though on this latter point information was scanty. He believed that the experiment would be first tried in British South-East Africa, and also suggested Nyasaland as a possible field. A keen debate followed, in which Count Pfeil, Mr. H. M. Stanley, Mr. Ravenstein, Mr. Silva White, M. Lionel Decle, Major Baker, Captain Hinde, M. J. Vincent, Dr. Bassaria, Captain Amaral,

Dr. Sambon, Dr. Murie and Mr. Louis took part. Slatin Pasha also gave an interesting account of his escape from the Sudan. Later in the day General Chapman read a paper on the Mapping of Africa, and a committee having been appointed to consider the question, the following resolutions were carried unanimously by the Congress at a later meeting:

'That it is desirable to bring to the notice of the Geographical Societies interested in Africa the advantages to be gained :—

(1) By the execution of accurate topographical surveys based on a sufficient triangulation of the districts in Africa suitable for colonisation by Europeans.

(2) By encouraging travellers to sketch areas rather than mere routes. (3) By the formation and publication of a list of all the places in unsurveyed Africa, which have been accurately determined by astronomical observations, with explanations of the methods employed.

(4) By the accurate determination of the position of many of the most important places in unsurveyed Africa, for which operation the lines of telegraph already erected, or in course of erection, afford great facilities.'

Only one section met in the afternoon, at which Professor Pettersson's scheme for further international work in the North Sea was considered. A resolution to the following effect was passed by the Congress on its last day of meeting:

'That the Congress recognises the scientific and economic importance of the results of recent research in the Baltic, the North Sea, and the North Atlantic, especially with regard to fishing interests, and records its opinion that the survey of these areas should be continued and extended by the co-operation of the different nationalities concerned, on the lines of the scheme presented to the Congress by Professor Pettersson.'

On Thursday, Mr. C. E. Borchgrevink read an interesting paper, in which he described his antarctic voyage. Professor Kan then read a paper on New Guinea, and Mr. Lindsay discussed future exploration in Australia. One of the sectional meetings was devoted to cartography; Professor Elisée Reclus reading a paper on a proposed terrestrial globe on the scale of 1: 100,000. In the other section, Dr. Naumann compared the fundamental lines of Anatolia and Central Asia, and Mr. Henry G. Bryant gave an account of observations on the most northern Eskimo, chiefly made during the Peary Relief Expedition.

Friday's papers were of interest mainly to specialists. The general session dealt chiefly with ancient maps, a paper by Baron Nordenskiöld being presented by the President, and a very valuable discussion of the origin of the sea-mile, given by Professor H. Wagner. The sections had papers on spelæology and mountain structure, and on the geographical nomenclature and the morphology of the earth, by Professor Penck.

On Saturday only one paper was read, by General Annenkoff, on the importance of geography in the present agricultural and economical crisis. A series of resolutions, drawn up by the various committees or submitted by private individuals, were put to the meeting. The President then delivered a short concluding address, and dissolved the Congress.

Experience had shown that if the Congress were divided into a large number of sections, papers would be brought forward dealing with points of detail, and larger questions, which alone ought to be considered on such an occasion, would not receive a proper amount of attention. The plan was therefore adopted of having a morning meeting of the whole Congress, and in the afternoon having only two sectional meetings. During the time when the Congress was being organised a limited number of subjects were especially selected as being suitable for treatment at great international gatherings, and a number of gentlemen were approached to ascertain whether they would be willing to read papers thereon. These special papers formed the basis of the work of the meeting.

A consultative body was appointed at the Congress consisting of all the acting Vice-Presidents, gentlemen nominated as representing all countries and as especially qualified to consider every geographical subject. This consultative.

body reported to the Congress its opinion with regard to every question about to be submitted to it, and this opinion carried so much weight that the views of the Vice-Presidents were in every case accepted by the Congress as a whole.

Another useful innovation is the resolution that the officers of each International Geographical Congress are to retain their duties until the meeting of the next Congress. The Congress only meets once in three or four years, and in the interval there has been no authority charged with the duty of seeing that the resolutions passed are carried out. Continuity of action is now secured.

The total number attending the Congress was about 1,500, of whom about 600 were foreigners, including most of the professors of geography in the world. The bringing together of so many workers in one science was, in all probability, one of the most beneficial effects of the Congress, and plenty of independent evidence could be brought forward to show how much our foreign guests appreciated our efforts to entertain them.

The Congress has never met in Germany, and it was decide that the next meeting should be held in Berlin in the year 1899.

6. On the Cosmosphere: an instrument combining the Terrestrial and Celestial Globes for the purpose of demonstrating Astronomical-Geogra phical Phenomena and Navigational Problems. By W. B. BLAIKIE. The cosmosphere is a form of globe in which the celestial sphere is a transparent film mounted with an independent motion outside the terrestrial sphere and concentric with it. The two spheres are connected with a floating horizon automatically adjusting itself to any latitude to be examined, thereby showing the student the actual apparent motions of the heavenly bodies from the standpoint of the observer; it also enables him, by measuring from the zenith and the horizon, to see and practise the problems in geodesy and navigation which have to be solved by travellers and navigators.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. An Expedition to Ruwenzori. By G. F. SCOTT ELLIOT, M.A. The journey of which this is an account was undertaken with funds partly sup plied by the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society, and partly by myself.

The general route which I adopted was as follows:

I left Mombasa in November 1893, and travelled up to Kampala, Uganda, by the ordinary route. I was unable to visit Elgon, and obliged to remain a month in Kampala on account of the war with Kabbarega which was then in progress. During this time Captain Gibb, Acting Administrator, entertained me with the very greatest kindness. After a month's delay, there seemed to be no chance of definite news from Unyoro, so I passed down through Buddu to the Kagera, which I was anxious to visit. I crossed this river at Kitangule and followed its course for six or seven days westwards. I then struck across Ankole to Ruwenzori.

After four months spent on the mountain, I turned southwards again, reaching the Kagera river at Latoma. I followed it as nearly as I could manage across Karagwe and then turned across Urundi and Bugufu towards Tanganyika, which