of 'descriptive geometry,' so that during one or two terms of a year it might be taken during the same hours as already devoted to descriptive geometry, with possibly one lecture a week, for one term, in the place of the actual lectures in the applied engineering, into which at present graphic methods are often obliged to be introduced for the want of proper preliminary training in the subject by a student. Moreover, the time now devoted in the engineering laboratory for the plotting of curves might be much better occupied in the drawing ball itself in connection with the practice of the plotting and interpolation of curves as a part of the subject of graphic methods, the data obtained from the engineering laboratory affording useful information.

(2) The time spent in such graphical work would be an excellent discipline in accurate drawing for a student, who is often inclined to regard a sketch roughly representing an idea as sufficient for practical purposes. A student should learn for himself that nothing is so easily deceived as the eye. It is quite true, as Professor Culmann says in the preface of his work, that the constructing engineer will give preference to geometrical solutions wherever an accuracy of results up to three decimals (one-thousandth), which can be perfectly well obtained, is sufficient, for his drawing instruments are always at hand, and drawing is his habitual expression of thought.' But such accuracy in drawing is by no means naturally or intuitively acquired, and the student requires training in a course of graphical methods before he would appreciate their value. Moreover such practice in actually performing the operations, and becoming familiar with the solution, is absolutely necessary, if it is to be expected that a student will really use these problems afterwards in his practical work, as such modifications become extremely puzzling owing to the want of a thorough acquaintance with the methods.

(3) It is not only necessary that a student should be familiar with accurate drawing, but also that he should be familiar with graphical constructions as a means of solving problems. The plan ordinarily adopted in the teaching of statics in conjunction with graphical methods themselves seems expecting too much for the capacity of an ordinary student, and the difficulty of getting a class of even intelligent students to correctly solve problems out of the beaten track may be attributed to the difficulty involved in combining these two things. In the use of ordinary geometry or analytical methods there are separate classes for algebra, analytical geometry, trigonometry, &c., and yet the ideas involved in them are no more difficult than those included in graphical constructions and methods. Graphical methods certainly, therefore, have the same claim to be considered as a separate branch of study.

The following proposition, supported by these arguments, was therefore brought forward :-That in all engineering schools a separate course in graphical methods of construction may with advantage be introduced which shall deal with such problems as have a practical bearing on mechanical science, and which do not involve applications of any concrete subjects, such as statics and dynamics, but which may familiarise the student, by means of examples accurately worked out by himself, with methods which he will be able to afterwards apply.'

The course contemplated would be a very short one, not exceeding ten classes or lectures of one hour each, in the course of which various facts not generally taught to students in connection with the plotting of curves which most frequently arise in engineering practice would be

dealt with, and it may be mentioned that the proposition seemed to meet with the general approval of the members of the Congress.

With regard to teaching the principles underlying the modes of solving problems, these appear to fall under two heads: (1) The process which has been called Combination of Segments' may be said for brevity to consist in obtaining from segments a resultant representing two properties of the same kind as the given segments; for instance, in the case of statical problems, the magnitude, and direction of the forces. (2) The process which corresponds to multiplication, in which two unlike. kinds of quantities are combined so as to form a result differing in kind from either. These practically include all the processes employed, but in applying them to different problems special teaching is necessary.

The writer is disposed to think, on subsequent consideration and from further discussion of the subject, that it may be advantageous to employ familiar examples in kinematics, statics, and dynamics in the actual working out of such problems, these being so selected that the students will be able to understand without difficulty the mechanical principles involved. The more difficult problems would be reserved until the student is engaged in studying the higher branches of applied mechanics, when he will by reason of the above teaching be familiar with the graphical principles employed. This system of employing familiar examples undoubtedly has the advantage of interesting students in the subject, and is a point of great importance in making clear the value of the methods. The proposed course would only slightly modify the details of what is at present actually taught in many engineering schools. It would, however, bring clearly before the student the methods themselves as distinguished from their applications.

He would also remark that some eminent authorities on technical education have very little belief in the separate study of graphical methods apart from geometry and machine drawing. But for those who are engaged in the actual work of engineering, especially those who have. very little knowledge of mathematics but are to a certain extent acquainted with practical geometry, the writer is convinced, both from experience in teaching evening classes of artisans and also with day college students, that a clear treatment of the methods employed in graphical constructions, as applied to simple rules of arithmetic, is of the highest value.

In bringing the report to a close he would further remark that the teaching in many English schools of engineering seems to introduce as much of the practical applications of graphical methods as in any other country, and that much of the apparently different treatment of the subject in English as compared with foreign schools is due to a difference of arrangement of courses and of terminology.

On the Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in Elementary and other Schools.-Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir DOUGLAS GALTON (Chairman), Dr. F. WARNER (Secretary), Mr. G. W. BLOXAM, Mr. E. W. BRABROOK, and Dr. J. G. GARSON. (Drawn up by Dr. FRANCIS WARNER.)

A COMMITTEE having been appointed by the International Congress of Hygiene and Demography (1891) to conduct an investigation as to the physical and mental condition of school children, and having commenced their work on lines approved by ample experience, your Committee decided to work with that committee, and the report here given has been prepared, by permission, from the facts accumulated by it. Thirty thousand children have been seen in forty-one schools, and notes were taken in 5,072 cases. It has not been possible to prepare a complete report, but an analysis has been made as to 16,094 children seen in eighteen schools. The method of procedure is as follows: All the children are seen in the three departments of the school-infants, boys, and girls. The pupils are observed as they stand in rank, usually a standard or smaller section at a time. The inspector, standing in front of each child in turn, holds a shilling for him to look at, so as to fix his eyes, and thus obtains a full face as well as a profile view of each side, noting the features separately and the cranium, the expression and muscular action of the parts of the face, the eye-movements, and other points. The trained observer can read off the points in the physiognomy of the individual features and their parts, noting the proportions and form of each.

Having inspected each child in the line as described, the children are asked to hold out their hands in front of them, and for a moment the action is done before them. The balance of head, spine, shoulders, as well as of the arms, hands, and fingers, are noted in each case. Finally the observer places his hand on the head, noting size, form, bosses, &c., and the palate is inspected in each case.

At each of these stages in the inquiry children presenting deviations from the normal in any particular are asked to stand aside. The teachers are then asked to present any exceptional or dull children not picked out by the observer.

Each selected child is re-examined individually, and described on a schedule form in which the defect or abnormal nerve-sign is verbally described. The teacher's report of the child's mental status is added. The name, age, and standard of each child are written in, and the number of children seen in each standard is recorded.

As far as possible a description is given of the general social status of the children, their nationality, and the general character of the neighbourhood.

For the purpose of preparing statistics each case verbally described in the report on the children is entered in a register, in which headings indicate the defects, the case being entered under such headings as correspond to its defects. The cases are thus presented in a tabular form, from which actuarial analysis and groupings can be accurately prepared.

As regards the standard of defect in observation of points of physiognomy or deviations from the normal, the observer should be well accus

tomed to note size, texture of tissue, and in particular the parts of the features, and describe as abnormal absence or ill-proportioning of parts. Thus the cranium was not noted as small unless the circumference be less than 19 in. at eight years old, or 191⁄2 in. among older children, while the general volume is estimated by the open hand placed upon it: the forehead, its width and height; presence of a median ridge or lateral bosses; in the ear the presence of helix, antihelix, pinna, lobe, and the general convexity and character of the cutaneous covering, &c.

The most frequent deviations from the normal cranium are in size, small head being most common among girls, while over-large heads were frequently associated with bosses, and were most common among boys. Other types of heads were asymmetrical, and a few cases of hydrocephalus were found in schools.

Defects in palate may usually be described as narrow, arched or vaulted, or V-shaped, the straight alveolar processes meeting at an acute angle anteriorly.

The bony bridge of the nose is often ill-developed, flat, and wide. The mouth and palpebral fissures may be small.

The epicanthis, at the inner angle of the eye-opening, is often marked. Other defects in development are less frequently met with, including supernumerary ears, defect or absence of limbs, cleft palate, &c.

The deviations from normal development here recorded are those well known in criminal anthropology, and as common among imbeciles; but the degree of ill-proportioning in the bodily condition of school children is usually much less than in idiots.

Defects of bodily development are frequently found to be coincident with defects of brain, lowering mental status, but not necessarily so. The connecting link between defects of body and defective mental action is the coincident defect of brain, which may be known by observation of 'abnormal nerve-signs." ,1 It is the coincident observation of conditions of development and nerve-signs,' indicating brain action, that forms a special feature of the present investigation, and distinguishes the methods used from older physiognomical research.

Another fact co-related with defect in development is the tendency of such children-especially girls-to become thin, pale, and delicate. It is in the co-relation of abnormalities in the proportioning of parts of the body with abnormal nerve-signs, low nutrition, and mental dulness that we find a criterion of the really defective status connected with the abnormality. We describe, not only defective children, but every child presenting a visible defect.

As the nerve-signs' may be new to many readers a brief description of some may be given.

The face is conveniently divided into three zones, the frontal, the middle down to the lower level of the orbits, and the lower containing the nostrils and the mouth. Deviations from the normal muscular action and balance are termed 'abnormal nerve-signs': their value depends on the significance as indices of action in the nerve-centres which produce them.

Frontal Muscles overacting.-Horizontal creases on the forehead are thus produced in varying degree: the creases may be fine, producing a

To this view of the question, as demonstrated by the original researches of Dr. Warner, the Committees attach great weight.

dull forehead; or coarse, producing a frown. This sign varies in degree, being least when the child is attentive and mentally engaged.

Corrugation. Knitting of the eyebrows, drawing the eyebrows together, with vertical creases on the forehead.

Orbicularis Oculi relaxed.-There is a thin circular muscle encircling the eyelids. Its tone gives sharpness of outline to the lower lid, so that its convexity is marked. Its action is increased in laughter. When this muscle is relaxed there is falness or bagginess under the eyes.

Eye-movements defective.-There may be wandering movements of the eyes without fixation; the child may not follow a slowly moving object with the eyes, but turn the head without any movement of the eyes.

Head-balance weak.-In the normal the head is held erect; it may fall forward or be inclined to one shoulder.

The normal posture of the hand when held out to the word of command is straight, all parts and the fingers being in the same plane, and the hand on a level with the shoulder, the arms being parallel.

Hand-balance nervous.-The wrist drooping, the palm slightly contracted laterally, the thumb and fingers extended backwards at their junction with the palm of the hand.

Hand-balance weak. In this type of balance the wrist is slightly drooped, the palm contracted laterally, and the digits are slightly bent or flexed. This posture is seen in sleep when the forearm is passively held out.

Finger-twitches.-These may be seen when the hand is held out and the fingers are spread. The twitching movements may be lateral or in flexion and extension.

Lordosis. When the hands are held out an altered balance of the spine may be seen in a weak child with arching forward in the lumbar region, while the upper part of the trunk is thrown back.

Other Nerve-signs.-This group includes the signs less frequently seen, such as the following:-Slowness of response in movement, defects of speech, over-smiling or grinning, drooped jaw with open mouth, nystagmus, paralysis, &c.

Analysis of Dr. Francis Warner's observations of 50,000 children seen 1890-92 has afforded much new information as to conditions bearing on the mental status and well-being of school children.

It has been shown that more boys than girls are ill-developed; but of such cases the girls tend more to delicacy and mental dulness, suggesting that, while the average girls may work hard with advantage, there are a certain number who need special care.

The group of children who appeared to require special training included the epileptic, imbeciles, those 'feebly gifted mentally,' and the paralysed: they amounted to 16 per 1,000. It is satisfactory to know that the School Boards of London, Birmingham, and Leicester have made special arrangements for the care of such cases. The same scientific principles as enabled their numbers to be ascertained may be used to indicate their special requirements in training.

Tracing the group of children with defects in development through certain schools, it is evident that they are more numerous in Poor-law schools and in certified industrial schools than in day schools, and that though they become fatter in resident institutions they there present more nerve disorder and more mental dulness.