city is to be found in the Greek historians, it is clear from Diodorus that they believed it to have been begun in a very remote period of antiquity.* 2. The rubbish collected at the foot of the obelisk of Luxor indicates that it was erected fourteen hundred years before the Christian era. 3. The causeway which crosses the plain of Siout furnishes a similar ground for supposing that it must have been founded twelve hundred years anterior to the same epoch. 4. The pillar of Heliopolis, six miles from Cairo, appears, from evidence strictly analogous, to have been raised about the period just specified; but as the waters drain off more slowly in the Delta than in Upper Egypt, the accumulation of alluvial soil is more rapid there than higher up the stream; the foundations, therefore, of ancient buildings in the former district will be at as great a depth below the surface as those of much greater antiquity are in the middle and upper provinces. But it is obvious that to form these calculations with such accuracy as would render them less liable to dispute, more time and observation would be requisite than could be given by the French in the short period during which they continued in undisturbed possession of Egypt. One general and important consequence, however, arising from their inquiries, can hardly be overlooked or denied; namely, that the dates thus obtained are as remote from the extravagant chronology of the ancient Egyptians, as they are consistent with the testimony of both sacred and profane history, with regard to the early civilization of that interesting country.† But little or no reliance can be placed on such conclusions, because it is now manifestly impossible to ascertain, in the first instance, whether the measures referred to by the ancient historians were in all cases of the same standard; * Diod. Sic. lib. i. c. 15, ἀμφισβητεῖται δ ̓ ἡ κτίσις της πολεως ταύτης, δυ μονον παρα τοις συγγραφεύσιν, ἀλλα και παρ' αυτοις τοις κατ' Αίγυπτον ἱερεῦσι. † See article "Egypt" in Encyclopædia Metropolitana. The grounds which may be alleged for giving a preference in point of chronology to the Samaritan text, or even to the Septuagint, and the singular approximation to the former, resulting from a mean taken between it, the Hindoo, and the Chinese epochs, are ably stated by Klaproth in his Asia Polyglotta, 25-29. and, secondly, whether the deposition of soil in the Egyptian valley did not proceed more rapidly in early times than it does in our days, or even than it has done ever since its effects first became an object of philosophical curiosity. That the level of the land has been raised, and its extent towards the sea greatly increased since the age of Herodotus, we might safely infer, as well from the great infusion of earthy matter which is held in suspension by the Nile when in a state of flood, as from the analogous operation of all large rivers, both in the old continents and in the new. There is, in truth, no good reason for questioning the fact mentioned by Dr. Shaw, that the mud of Ethiopia has been detected by soundings, at the distance of not less than twenty leagues from the coast of the Delta. Nor is there any substantial ground for apprehending, with the author just named, that, in process of time, the whole country may be raised to such a height that the river will not be able to overflow its banks; and consequently that Egypt, from being the most fertile, will, for want of the annual inundation, become one of the most barren parts of the universe. The fears of the learned traveller might have been removed by the following reflections. As the formation of land in the Delta proceeds at a quicker rate than in the higher parts of the river, the issue of water into the sea becomes, year after year, less rapid, and consequently less copious; the current is retarded by the accumulation of mud; the mouths are successively choked by the increasing masses of sand and soil; and hence, in the course of ages, the stream, creating a barrier against its own escape, is thrown back upon the adjoining valley, and becomes the willing servant of the agriculturist from Rosetta to the Cataracts. The same opinion is expressed by Lucretius in the following verses :— Est quoque, uti possit magnus congestus arenæ Cùm mare permotum ventus ruit intus arenam: Quo sit uti pacto liber minus exitus amnis, Et proclivus item fiat minus impetus undis.-Lib. vi. v. 724. Then ocean, haply, by the undevious breeze Blown up its channel, heaves with every wave Heaps of high sands, and dams its wonted course: Whence narrower, too, its exit to the main, And with less force the tardy stream descends. While this cause continues to operate in checking the velocity of the inundation in the northern division of the country, the entrance of the river at Philoe is gradually facilitated by the removal of those obstructions which, in ancient times, secured to Nubia the advantages of an annual irrigation such as Egypt now enjoys, and which still partially oppose the motion of the descending flood. The traveller discovers on both sides of the Nubian valley many traces of an extended cultivation which no longer exists. The ridge of rocks which formerly crossed the line of the river, and gave rise to the magnificent falls, the sound of which was heard at the distance of so many leagues and stunned the neighbouring inhabitants, has been insensibly corroded and worn down by the action of the rushing water, and presents in these days only a few tokens of its original extent. A similar effect, which time will produce on the cliffs of Niagara, will be attended with a similar result on the chain of lakes which terminate in Erie,-the contents of which will at length find their way to the ocean along the bed of the St. Lawrence. In the remote ages of the future, the immense valleys now occupied by Superior, Michigan, and those other inland seas which form so striking a feature in North America, will be covered with flocks, herds, and an agricultural population, and only watered by a fine river passing through their centre. In this way the interior of every continent is imperceptibly drained, and new tracts of alluvial land are added to its extremities. That Egypt was raised and augmented in the manner described above is rendered manifest by a variety of considerations. It is particularly deserving of notice, as suggested by Dr. Shaw and confirmed by the French, that whereas the soil of other level countries is usually of the same depth, we find it in Egypt to vary in proportion to its distance from the river,-being in some places near the banks more than thirty feet, while at the extremity of the inundation it does not exceed six inches. Another circumstance which fortifies the same conclusion is the practice long since become necessary of raising mounds to protect their cities from the violence of the waters. It is not to be imagined that the natives, accustomed to the annual swelling of their river, would build their towns within the limits even of its greatest elevation. On the contrary, it is believed that they were wont to place their cities on artificial eminences, to guard against the inconvenience of the summer flood, and particularly to exempt from its ravages their temples and public monuments. But it is every where admitted that some of the finest of their ancient towns are at present under the level of the inundation; while the most laborious efforts have in other parts become indispensable to prevent, by embanking, the destruction of their sacred buildings. Memphis, it is presumed, has been covered by the increasing soil, after having been abandoned by its inhabitants, who had found the use of mounds unavailing. Bubastis, when about to fall a prey to the same destroyer, was rebuilt on higher ground; but the beautiful temple, as it could not be removed, was left in its original position, and was accordingly looked down upon from every part of the new city: Heliopolis, in like manner, as we are informed by Strabo, was erected upon an eminence; but at present the land is elevated around it to such a degree that it appears situated in a plain, which, moreover, is inundated every year to the depth of six or eight feet.* This source of fertility to Egypt depends exclusively, as every reader knows, upon the periodical rains which drench the table-land of Abyssinia and the mountainous country which stretches from it towards the south and west. The ancients, some of whom indeed entertained very absurd notions respecting the cause of this phenomenon, were generally in the right as to its physical origin,-expressing their belief that the annual overflow of the Nile was closely connected with the climate of Ethiopia, that receptacle of clouds and vapour. Plutarch states most distinctly that the increase of the Egyptian river is owing to the rains which fall in Abyssinia. Even the Arabs had arrived at the same conclusion long before any European found his way into the country. More than seven hundred years ago, a failure in the inundation was announced to the farmers of Egypt by a clerical envoy from the chief city of Ethiopia; who, after having stated that the season in the hill country had been unusually dry, advised them to expect and prepare for the unwonted lowness of the Nile, which actually occurred. * Shaw, vol. ii. p. 229. ↑ History of Egypt by Abdollatiph, quoted by Shaw, vol. ii. p. 215. bdallati It is impossible to find any where among terrestrial objects a more striking instance of the stability of the laws of nature than the periodical rise and fall of this mighty river. We know, by the testimony of antiquity, that the inundations of the Nile have been the same with respect to their height and duration for thousands of years; which, as Humboldt remarks, is a proof well worthy of attention, that the mean state of humidity and temperature does not vary in that vast basin.* The rise of the water is so regular that the inhabitants of Lower Egypt look for its arrival with the same degree of confidence as if the blessings which it brings along with it depended upon causes within their own control. The value attached to this gift of nature is esteemed so great as to be made the subject of political regulation, and the main source of public revenue. When it rises to six teen cubits, the prosperity of the country and the wealth of the exchequer are secure. But, unfortunately, influenced by avaricious motives, the power of a despotic government is employed to mislead their own people in the first instance, and, through that channel, the more scientific nations of Europe, in regard to the actual rise of the inundation. It has been suspected that the notices issued by the guardians of the Mekyas, or Nilometer, have a reference to the taxes which the ruler of Egypt intends to levy, rather than to the real increase of the fertilizing fluid from which they are to be derived. It was first suspected by Niebuhr, and afterward fully ascertained by the French, that the number of cubits announced in the daily proclamation of the height of the river is not to be relied upon. The real state of the inundation is concealed for political purposes; and as a proof of this, it is mentioned by M. Girard, that, in 1801, when the public crier gave notice that the water had attained twenty-three cubits two inches, it stood in reality at only eighteen cubits. Hence the difficulty of obtaining an accurate statement on this head, and the impossibility of comparing with suitable exactness the fluctuations of the river in ancient and modern times. Considering how much the Egyptians owe to the Nile, it is not surprising that in rude ages they should have been induced to make it an object of worship. Not only does it *Pers. Nar. vol. iv. |