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CHAPTER VII.

The Civil History of Modern Egypt.

Saracenic Dynasties-Foundation of Cairo-Crusaders-Saladin the Great-Siege of Ptolemais-Death of Saladin--Crusaders defeatedRise of Mamlouks-The Borghites-Monguls and Tatars-Ibrahim Bey-Ali Bey; his Syrian Campaign; his Death and CharacterMohammed Bey-Ibrahim and Mourad-Invasion by the FrenchDefeat at Acre-Victory of Lord Nelson-Battle of Alexandria, and Death of Abercrombie-Evacuation of Egypt by the French-Kurouf Pasha-Mohammed Ali; Success against the Beys; appointed Pasha -British Expedition in 1807-Massacre of Mamlouks-History of Wahabees; defeated by Ibrahim Pasha-European Tactics introduced -Character of Mohammed Ali.

THE enterprising spirit breathed into the Saracens by their military prophet soon made itself felt in the rapid conquests which they effected in all the surrounding countries. Egypt, as a province of the Roman empire which was already about to fall in pieces by its own weight, could not resist their arms, led by the valiant and politic Amru. Aided by treachery this fortunate general got possession of Alexandria; to the inhabitants of which he presented the humiliating alternative of paying a heavy tribute year after year, or of embracing the Mohammedan faith and submitting to its painful ritual. At the same time the valuable library which adorned that city fell a prey to the religious bigotry of the conquerors, who thought that any addition to the knowledge bequeathed to them by the author of the Koran was either superfluous or positively sinful.

The frequent contentions which ensued during the eighth century for the honours of the caliphate afforded to Egypt an opportunity of occasionally asserting its independence; but no sooner was the question of supreme power determined by arms or by treaty than it was again compelled to submit to the will of the victor. Among the various dynasties which assumed the reins of government were the descendants of Ali the son-in-law of the prophet, of Abbas his uncle, and of Fatima his daughter,-who continued to

urge their respective claims during several generations, and to expel one another in their turn from the thrones of Damascus and of Bagdad.

The reader could take no interest in the obscure wars and sanguinary revolutions which were directed by the powerful families of Aglab, Ommiah, and Ikshed, who not only seized the provincial authority along the shores of the Mediterranean, but even alarmed the holy successors of Mohammed in Syria and on the banks of the Tigris. At length, towards the end of the tenth century, the chief of the Fatimite branch removed the seat of his power from Cyrene, where it had been long established, to Cahira the City of Victory, the Grand Cairo of modern times. Other princes had assumed independence in Egypt, and refused to acknowledge the temporal supremacy of the Caliph of Bagdad, though the title of the latter, in his capacity of Imaum or chief priest of the Mohammedans, was regularly recited in the daily prayers of the faithful. But the African usurper at length interdicted this mark of spiritual allegiance, and demanded as his own right all the honours which belonged to the lineal descendant of the prophet.

The eleventh century brought upon Egypt a succession of calamities. A dreadful famine, with the usual accompaniments of plague and pestilence, swept off great multitudes, especially in the maritime districts and along the Syrian border. This destructive visitation was succeeded by one hardly less to be deplored,—an inroad of the Turks, who had already descended from the extensive plains of Central Asia and found employment at the court of the caliph as mercenary soldiers. They had resolved to avenge the cause of their master on his rebellious subjects; and with this view they committed the most horrid cruelties wherever they could carry their arms, setting an example of a savage warfare long unknown to the country which they had overrun, and thereby rousing against themselves the bitterest resentment and detestation of the whole body of the people. The hosts of the crusaders arrived to complete the misery which the northern barbarians had commenced. Having reduced Pelusium these warriors advanced against Cairo, which they threatened with a similar fate; but learning that a Syrian army was on its march to cut

off their retreat, they accepted a sum of money and raised the siege.

Towards the close of the twelfth century the descendants of Fatima ceased to reign over Egypt. Aladid, the last of the race, appears to have intrusted the government to the wisdom of his viziers, who, it is manifest, laboured both at home and abroad to establish their own power rather than that of their master; and as he had no near relations, his death was the signal for his ambitious minister to seat himself on the empty throne. This founder of a new dynasty was the renowned Saladin, whose name is so closely associated with the most brilliant exploits of the Mohammedan arms. He began by seizing the wealth and securing the strong places of the kingdom,-throwing at the same time into confinement all whom he suspected of being the partisans of the late monarch. Not inheriting the blood of the prophet, he did not assume the title of caliph, which implies the sacerdotal as well as the kingly office; but contented himself with the denomination of sultan, leaving the priestly duties to be discharged by some individual sprung from the sacred lineage.

Though Saladin was acknowledged as sovereign of Egypt by many of the neigbouring states, and even received the sanction of the caliph of Bagdad, his government was not yet firmly established. There were two powerful factions opposed to his authority; the adherents of Aladid's family, who wished to retain the sceptre in the Fatimite succession, and the king of Syria, who dreaded the ascendency of so warlike a neighbour. The first favoured the pretensions of an adventurer who claimed the throne, and even enabled him to appear in the field at the head of 100,000 men. But a complete victory soon relieved the new sultan from all apprehension in this quarter. The Christians, under the command of William, king of Sicily, next engaged his attention, having laid siege to Alexandria both by land and sea. Saladin flew to the relief of a place the preservation of which was so important at once to his reputation and to the success of his future plans. He had mustered a force sufficient to justify the hazard of a battle; but before he could accomplish his object, the crusaders, smitten with a sudden panic, commenced a hurried retreat, leaving behind them their stores, their baggage, and even their military

engines. The court of Damascus, still cherishing a feeling of deep-rooted jealousy, endeavoured to strengthen their interests by an extended alliance among the surrounding principalities; watching eagerly for an opportunity to check the views and disappoint the ambition of the Egyptian sultan. At length they resolved to commit their cause to the fortune of war. A general engagement ensued, which terminated so decidedly in favour of Saladin that he returned from it the undisputed master of the whole of Syria.

His next cares were directed to the enlargement and fortification of Cairo, which he had determined to render a capital worthy of his extensive dominions, and fit to be compared with the more ancient cities adorned by Menes, Sesostris, and Ptolemy. He encouraged the schools and literature of the country, and in many other respects showed qualities suited to a time of peace; but he was soon torn away from his schemes of domestic improvement to the din of arms and the ravages of war. Having obtained the ascendency in Syria, he resolved to extend his power also into Palestine; and with this view he led his troops against the numerous host of the crusaders who had again joined their banners for the recovery of the Holy Land. His first efforts in the field were not attended with success. The Christians, animated with an equal courage and long accustomed to the use of their weapons, repelled the attacks of the sultan with so much fury that he saw his fine army perish before his eyes, either in the battle or while attempting to retreat across the desert into Egypt.

But his spirit could not be subdued by temporary reverses. Aided by commanders who shared his energy and ambition, he resumed offensive operations both by sea and land; recovered all the ground he had lost in the former campaign; and finally gained a decisive victory over the allied forces led by Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, and by Arnold, lord of Karac, both of whom were taken prisoners. The former was treated with respect, but the latter was put to death by Saladin's own hand, because he had inflicted many injuries on the followers of Mohammed. Ptolemais, Neapolis, Cæsarea, and other cities fell into the power of the Egyptian ruler, who, finding nothing to oppose his progress, marched to the capital, which he im

mediately invested. The garrison was numerous, and made a desperate defence; but after the conqueror had effected a breach in the walls, and was on the point of entering the town, the governor proposed a capitulation. Saladin, enraged at the delay occasioned by a protracted siege, refused to accept the terms; vowing that he would sack and utterly demolish the Holy City, though almost equally venerated by Mohammedans and by Christians. His cruel threatenings roused the spirit of the defenders, who announced their resolution to put 5000 Mussulman prisoners to death; and in order that no European might be exposed to their revenge, they would also deprive of life their own wives and children. They added, that with the view of disappointing their enemy in the expectation of booty, they would destroy every thing valuable within the walls; level the rock which the disciples of the prophet held sacred; and then sally out in a body on the besiegers, either to purchase victory or to sell their lives at the dearest price. The knowledge of this resolution moved Saladin to more reasonable terms; and he consented that the garrison, as well as the inhabitants of Jerusalem, should have their lives spared on the condition of paying a liberal ransom in money.

The wars which Saladin carried on against the heroes of the Crusade do not properly fall within the limits of this volume, more especially as the scene of conflict was chosen in Syria rather than in Egypt. Suffice it to mention, that when he had succeeded in establishing his authority from Thebes to Damascus, his territories were once more invaded by a Christian armament, conducted by the Emperor of Germany, the King of France, and the celebrated Richard Cœur de Lion, the sovereign of England. The combined forces encamped before Ptolemais, a stronghold which is better known by its modern name of Acre,-in which the sultan had collected a numerous army, and made preparations for a vigorous defence. Want of harmony among the European powers enabled him to resist their attacks a long time without incurring any serious loss; and it was not until the approach of famine had thinned his ranks and depressed the spirits of the survivors, that he consented to offer conditions. Upon the promise of refunding a part of the treasure which at different times he had extorted

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