returned to Chester with about fifty or sixty horse, and there he was "congratulated on this his great victory over Sir William" (Brereton). The Parliamentarians, however, had a "solemn day of thanksgiving, and afterwards fell to the further "managing of the weighty affairs of that county "wherein the Lord gave us singular good successe."

Rupert was evidently greatly dreaded by the Parliament men. He is generally called in this book "Prince Robber," but sometimes Prince "Plunderer"; and his endeavours to strengthen his forces by compulsory enlistment are denounced in language brightened by a considerable proportion of forcible adjective. And it is asserted that the King's eye was more fastened to fixe and augment his forces in this poore County Palatine "of Chester than on any other county in the king"dome. Witness his first sending thither "that cow stealer, the unsuccessful atheisticall "Lord Capel, who was soon beaten thence." "Then the bloody Lord Byron, beaten as afore"said; and after all these pilfering, Prince Robber "himself discomfitted, as you have heard by the most valiant Colonel Mitton. Thus was this county at last brought into a more quiet and " stable condition."

The valiant performances of Brereton's forces in the fight at Tarvin in August, 1644, are eulogised; and one John Cooper, a corporal in his troop, is immortalized by the recital how that he, "Seeing a most brave horse which the enemy could not get into the church in Tarvin town (where "the fight was very hot and furious), but was fain "to bee held by the bridle by one of the enemies "under the church wall, this brave spirited corporal "adventured to fetch the horse away, but they fired "so fast out of the church upon him that hee was "forced twice to retreat, but hee adventured the

"third time, pistolled the enemy, and so brought 66 away the horse, which was valued to be worth at "least fourscore pounds."

There is a picturesque account of the capture of the city of Chester in September, 1645; but it is too long to quote more than the concluding paragraph, showing the North Gate was the last portion of the fortifications to hold out. The writer says, "One part of the enemie fled into "Saint Warburge Minster, some at the East Gate "and some at New Gate. We have gained all "between the Rack and the gate going into St. Warburge. As for the North Gate, we doubt "not but we shall soone determine that. We have "also taken the Barn and the inner workes there, "together with the Maior of the Citie's house, "where we took his Sword and his Mace, which "it seemed for haste to flie into the city he had "left behinde him."

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To the student of history these Civil War Tracts are interesting from another point of view also: that of the growing influence of public opinion on matters political. It never occurred to the arbitrary Tudors to appeal to the opinions of their subjects, nor could they easily have done so, owing to difficulties of printing and circulation. But in these tracts we see the precursors of those terrible pamphlets which fifty years later were, in Swift's polished and forcible language, such powerful engines in support of ministries in Queen Anne's time. They were perhaps the highest development of the tract or pamphlet proper: after a while came the mighty quarterlies; while now the "leaders" of the London dailies focus public opinion and, to such a large extent, shape public policy. Tracts have had their day, and are now mere historical relics.

NOTES ON ALTCAR PARISH.

By the Rev. William Warburton,

Vicar of the Parish.

Read 24th January and 7th February, 1895.

VILLAGE communities date back in docu

mentary evidence to the sixth century, but by the aid of comparative custom we can look back much further still. When a primitive community became a village, a stone was set up.' This stone was the meeting-place of the early folkmoot," or village parliament, which was presided over by the head of the little clan or tribe. Hereditary at first, this office became elective. The assembly over which he presided proclaimed their will by shouting "Yea, yea," or

Nay, nay," to the subject upon which they were called to decide. They decided how many sheep, &c., should be pastured by the different burgesses (i.e., all who had a burgage or tenement in the village) upon the common pasture ground, and all other matters relating to individual rights of the villagers. These folkmoots were the origin of a number of customs and superstitions that have been handed down to us.

There is evidence that when the Celts invaded this country they found it already inhabited. The pre-Aryan race they found in possession worshipped

I Gomme's Village Community, p. 218.

ancestral spirits, of which the hearthplace was essentially the shrine and the altar. The fire was never allowed to go out; the ritual attendant upon birth, marriage, and burial centred round the sacred fire; and offerings to the ancestral god at the hearth were made from the food of the household.3 "Christianity has rooted out the old "hearth religion from its place, and has set it floating amidst popular superstitions, which the "people have preserved wherever Christianity has "not deeply penetrated." Thus, from this ancient. hearth cult, with its ever-burning fire, has come down the superstition, held in some places, that it is unlucky to allow the fire to go out on the last night of the year, or to give a light from the fire to one not of the household on New Year's Day, or for the New Year to be "brought in " by anyone having red hair.

When the Celts established themselves in this country their superstitious fears led them to dread the anger of the local spirits," and this enabled the non-Aryan priests, who were already in the land, to continue their religious leadership, for it has been shown that Druidism was the survival of the old hearth-worship of the pre-historic and nonAryan aborigines.

The meetings of the old village folkmoots were held in the open air, as the result of a superstition which came down from the times when "household

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a Ibid, p. 129.

3 Dr. Hearn, as quoted in Gomme's Folklore Relics of Early Village Life, gives the following description of this ancient religion:-"The primitive religion was domestic. This domestic religion was composed of two closely "related parts,-the worship of deceased ancestors and the worship of the "hearth. The deceased ancestor, or his ashes, was either actually buried or "assumed to be buried beneath the hearth. Here the spirit was supposed to "dwell, and here it received the daily offerings, which were its rightful dues, "and which were essential to its happiness."

4 Gomme's Folklore Relics of Early Village Life. 5 Gomme's Village Community, p. 103.

"gods occupied the place of Christianity, and "superstitious fears the place of morality." Beda tells us why Ethelbert of Kent met Augustine and his companions in the open air. "He had taken "the precaution that they should not come to him "in any house, lest, according to an ancient "superstition, they practised magical arts upon "him, and so got the better of him."

From the old folkmoots has descended the custom of choosing a mock mayor, at such times as the rushbearing, in the Altcar history of some years ago.

The stone marking the site of the newly established village was usually planted under some tree, or by some river side, and to it the head man of the village made an offering once a year. Much later on, when the Saxons had established themselves, and had become Christians, the cross took the place of the rude unchiselled stone, and although in Altcar all trace of the original stone has been lost in the distant prehistoric past, we still have the base of the old cross; round which, possibly, the Altcar folkmoots of centuries ago used to meet, whence all village proclamations were made, and beneath which the clergy from the monasteries held their open-air services before parishes were in existence.

The Roman occupation of England had little effect upon the village life of such places as Altcar. Saxon clans came over after the Romans left, and drove away or exterminated the Celts, and made their clearings in the woods of this neighbourhood;

6 London stone is still preserved. Holinshed tells us that when Cade, in 1450, forced his way into London, he first of all proceeded to the London stone, and having struck his sword upon it, said, "Now is Mortimer (i.e., Cade) "lord of the city." When the old village stone gave way to the cross, we find a custom that explains this. On the mayor's day at Bovey Tracy the mayor used to ride round the stone cross, and strike it with a stick. This significant action proclaimed the authority of the mayor of Bovey. - Gomme's Village Community, p. 218.