One, and that the most obvious to common observers, is the diversity of colour. It is well known that there is a correspondence between the colours of the skin, the hair, and the eyes of individuals. With few exceptions, lightcoloured eyes are joined to a fair complexion and light hair, but a relation of the colour of the skin to that of the hair is perhaps universal. The women of Barbary and Syria are said to be often very white, although they have black hair; but this is to be attributed to art, and careful protection from the sun. Dr. Prichard, taking the hue of the hair as the leading character, divides mankind into three principal varieties of colour, which he calls the melanic, the xanthous, and the albino. The first includes all individuals or races who have black hair; the second, those who have either brown, auburn, yellow, flaxen, or red hair; and the third, those who have white hair, and who are also distinguished by red eyes. "The melanic variety forms by far the most numerous class of mankind. It is the complexion generally prevalent; except in some particular countries, chiefly in the northern regions of Europe and Asia, where races of the xanthous variety have multiplied; and it may be looked upon as the natural and original complexion of the human species. The hair of the head, in the melanic races, is of various texture and growth, from the long and lank hair of the native Americans, to the fine crisp hair of the African negroes. The hue of the skin varies from a deep black, which is that of some African nations, to a much lighter or more dilute shade. The dusky hue is combined, in some nations, with a mixture of red, in others with a tinge of yellow. The former are the coppercoloured nations of America and Africa; the latter, the olive-coloured races of Asia. In the deepness or intensity of colour we find every shade or gradation, from the black of the Senegal negro, or the deep olive and almost jet black of the Malabars and some other nations of India, to the light olive of the northern Hindoos. From that we still trace every variety of shade among the Persians and other Asiatics, to the complexion of the swarthy Spaniards, or of European brunettes in general.” Examples of the albino variety have been noticed in almost all countries. In Europe they are by no means uncommon; sixteen instances have been seen in Germany by Professor Blumenbach. The fact of their occurrence in other parts of the world

is also fully established. It appears that they are frequent among the coppercoloured native Americans on the isthmus of Darien; and they have been observed in many islands both of the Indian and of the great Southern Ocean. Among the Hindoos they are regarded with peculiar horror. The most remarkable circumstance, yet not an unusual one, is the birth of white negroes among the black races of Africa: they are looked upon as curiosities, and are often collected by the native monarchs. Their hair is of a woolly character, and many of them are true albinos. The xanthous variety may be considered as intermediate between the other two. It chiefly prevails in the temperately cold regions of Europe and Asia, where it sometimes runs through whole tribes; but it also springs up out of every melanic race. The Jews, like the Arabs, are generally black haired, but many may be seen with light hair and eyes; and the same remark will apply to the Russians. The xanthous variety also appears among the South Sea islanders and the natives of America, and even among the negro races of Africa, both in their own climate and in the places to which they have been transported.

Varieties of form, more especially of the shape of the skull, furnish another grand instance of diversity among the races of men. The ingenious Professor Blumenbach has made the varieties in the construction of the skull the basis of a division of mankind into five principal races or departments, which he denominates, 1. the Caucasian; 2. the Mongolian; 3. the Ethiopian or Negro; 4. the American; and 5. the Malay and South Sea Island *. The first is that variety to which the nations of Europe and some of the western Asiatics belong; in this class the head is almost round, and of the most symmetrical shape, the cheek bones without any projection, the face oval, and the features moderately prominent. In the second class, the head is almost square, the cheek bones projecting outwards, the nose flat, the face broad and flattened, with the parts imperfectly distinguished, the internal angle of the eye depressed towards the nose. In the third class, the head is narrow and compressed at the sides, the forehead very convex, the cheek bones projecting forwards, the nostrils wide, the jaws lengthened, the skull in general

The first three are the most strongly marked varieties in the form of the skull; the remaining two being only approximations to the preceding.

thick and heavy, the face narrow, projecting towards the lower part, the nose spread and almost confounded with the cheeks, the lips, particularly the upper one, very thick. The fourth variety approaches to the Mongolian: the cheekbones are prominent, but more arched and rounded than in the skull of the Mongole, the form of the forehead and of the top of the head is often altered by means of artificial pressure during infancy, the face is broad without being flat, the forehead low, and the eyes deeply seated. In the fifth variety, the summit of the head is slightly narrowed, the forehead a little arched, the upper jaw somewhat projecting, the face less narrow, and the features more prominent and better marked than in the negro.

These descriptions give a clear idea of five principal varieties in the form of the human head; nevertheless, the attempt to assign them as the distinctive characters of so many races of men is open to strong objections; since, whether we take as a standard the figure of the skull, or perhaps any other peculiarity of structure, it is impossible, with reference to that standard, to divide the human species into departments, such as can be regarded with probability as so many separate races or families. The third, or Ethiopian variety of skull, is found in the greatest degree among the tribes inhabiting the coast of Guinea and other western countries of Africa; but it must not be set down as common among all the Negro nations; for there are many black and woolly headed races in Africa which come under the designation of Negro, who display a very different shape of the head and features from that described under the third variety. Again, the skulls of the New Hollanders are almost as much compressed as those of any Negroes, and they would, under the preceding classification, be brought with in the Ethiopic race; yet no one could assert that the New Hollanders and the woolly-headed Africans, differing so much in other physical characters, and separated by so vast a distance, should be included in the same department of the human species. On this account, Dr. Prichard has proposed a division of the varieties of the skull into three classes, distinguished by names derived from their forms, and not from any supposed origin of the nations to which they respectively belong.

In the shape of the body, as well as in the size and proportion of the limbs,

and consequently in the degree of strength and agility which they possess, there are some remarkable varieties among nations. Some Negro tribes, the Australian or New Holland savages, and the Kalmucks, seem to be those which differ most in figure from Europeans. According to numerous measurements, the arm below the elbow is somewhat longer in the Negro, in proportion to the upper arm, and to the height of the stature, than it is in the European. It has therefore been remarked, that in this respect the generality of Negroes approach more to the structure of the ape; but if we descend to individuals, many Europeans will be found in whom the fore arm is as long as in the majority of Negroes, and, on the other hand, Negroes in whom it is as short as in the majority of Europeans. A clumsy form of the legs, broad and flat feet, and large hands, are also described as peculiarities of the Negro.

On

With respect to stature, the difference between one nation and another is generally not very considerable. From all accounts, the tallest race of men existing are the Patagonians. They are usually more than six, and, in some instances, as much as seven feet in height. the contrary, the natives of Tierra del Fuego are described as miserable and puny savages. The Esquimaux, in the north of America, are likewise diminutive, being generally under five feet. Africa also contains some small races. Of the Bosjesmans or Bushmen, who are said to be the most deformed of mankind, Lichtenstein saw two individuals who were scarcely four feet high. This unhappy race, who were plundered of their property and hunted down like wild beasts by the early settlers in the Cape colony, have since lived among the rocks and woods on the northern frontier of the settlement, where they support themselves in a great measure by depredation. These instances tend to show that when whole races are deformed and stunted, it is to be attributed to exposure to constant hardships or an inclement climate, and to the wretched and precarious nature of their subsistence. Both extremes of stature which have been observed among nations, are frequently surpassed by individual examples in the inhabitants of different countries. Many natives of Europe, from eight to nine feet high, have been exhibited as objects of curiosity, and there have been dwarfs of less than four, and even three feet.

The only other varieties in the human

race which require notice, are those in the texture of the skin, and the character of the hair. The skin of Negroes is said to be always cooler than that of Europeans in the same climate, and to be distinguished for its sleekness and velvet-like softness. A similar observation has been made of several African tribes, and also of the Otaheitans. These qualities of the skin seem to be connected with the existence of the dark matter by which, among these nations, it is coloured; for in albinos, both African and Otaheitan, the skin becomes rough and inflamed, and cracks upon being exposed to the sun. The contrasts between the hair of different races are exceedingly striking. In the Negro, the Hottentot, and some other races, the hair is short and crisp, somewhat approaching, to the nature of wool; in other nations it is long and lank; and between these two kinds there are nume rous gradations. In Africa, the Kaffers have hair like that of the Negroes, some tribes have it longer; some again, who are black and otherwise similar to Negroes, have hair curled, but not crisp.. The Papuas (the name by which the inhabitants of New Guinea and the neighbouring islands are distinguished) have crisp hair; but, unlike that of the Africans, it grows very long, and admits of being spread out into an immense bush. The hair of the natives of Van Diemen's Land is as crisp as that of the Africans, but the New Hollanders have straight hair; while in the New Hebrides it is of an intermediate character, and varies considerably in the men of the same island. The hair of the natives of America is generally lank; in a few instances curled; but in none crisp or woolly..

In the next place, we shall compare the diversities, of which a sketch has been given, as existing in the appearance of the human race, with the variations in form, colour, and structure, which are seen in the lower animals, and especially in the domesticated kinds. The differences in colour which quadrupeds of the same species exhibit, are so familiar to the eye, that it is unnecessary to do more than allude to them. Among horses, oxen, dogs, cats, rabbits, &c., we continually behold hues which are analogous either to the melanie, the xanthous, or the albino varieties in mankind. Among several kinds of wild animals, a white not unfrequently springs up. In many instances, certain colours are prevalent in particular breeds, and

in some cases we might be warranted in › concluding that the colours depend upon the local circumstances of the countries in which the breed is placed. Blumenbach mentions several examples which will illustrate this remark. He states that all the swine of Piedmont are black; those of Normandy, white; and.. those of Bavaria of a reddish brown colour. In Hungary, the oxen are of a greyish white; in Franconia, they are red. The turkeys of Normandy are black; those of Hanover almost all white. In Guinea, the dogs and the gallinaceous* fowls are as black as the human race. Even in our own country, certain colours may be seen prevailing in the cattle of particular districts. Doctor F. Bucha nan says, that in Mysore the sheep exhibit three sorts of colour: red, black, and white, and these are not distinct breeds. Don Felix de Azzara relates some curious circumstances respecting the colour of the horses and oxen in Paraguay, where, as well as in other parts of South America, both these races have run wild, and become very numerous. He says that all the wild horses are of one colour (a chestnut or bay-brown), whereas the domestic horses are of all colours, as in other countries. He makes a similar kind of observation concerning the oxen. As to form and the structure and proportion of parts, the diversities: which arise in the same race of animals, far surpass those which subsist between one nation and another among men. Alluding to the hog tribe, Professor Blumenbach remarks, that " no naturalist has carried his scepticism so far as to doubt the descent of the domestic swine from the wild boar. It is certain that, before the discovery of America by the Spaniards, swine were unknown in that quarter of the world, and that they were first carried thither from Europe. Yet, notwithstanding the comparative shortness of the interval, they have in that country degenerated into breeds wonderfully different from each other, and from the original stock. These instances of diversity, and those of the hog kind in general, may therefore be taken as clear and safe examples of the variations which may be expected to arise in the descendants of one stock." He afterwards observes that the difference be tween the craniums of the Negro and of the European is not greater than that between the craniums of the wild boar and of the domestic swine.

* Erom gallus, a cock.

In the

breeds of oxen, sheep, and horses, we may discern additional examples of deviation from an original standard. Some breeds of sheep and oxen are destitute of horns; others, on the contrary, are distinguished by the large size of their horns. In Paraguay there are breeds of oxen without horns, descended from the common horned race. With respect to horses, Blumenbach again observes that there is less difference in the form of the skull in the most dissimilar of mankind, than between the elongated head of the Neapolitan horse and the skull of the Hungarian breed, which is remarkable for its shortness and the extent of the lower jaw. The varieties in the covering of animals are not less worthy of notice than those to which reference has already been made. In the same race of sheep, some are clothed with wool, others with hair. It is known that if a flock is neglected, the fine wool is succeeded by a much coarser growth, inter mixed with strong hairs; the breed, be ing no longer kept up with care, seems gradually to degenerate towards the characters of the argali, or wild sheep of Siberia, which naturalists consider to be the stock whence all domestic sheep have proceeded. A striking specimen of the changes which occur in breeds is afforded by the sheep of the West India islands, which, although descended from the woolly sheep of Europe, are covered with coarse hair. The deterioration has usually been attributed to the heat of the climate; but it must also be referred to the circumstance of their breed having been neglected. Other animals, such as goats and dogs, display a similar variety in the nature of their covering.

The preceding facts clearly prove that, in the lower animal creation, there spring up, in the same species, varieties of an analogous or similar kind to those which mark the different races of men. The existence of this analogy confirms still further the opinion expressed as to the unity of the human species. It now only remains to inquire whether it is absolutely known that varieties have arisen in a family or race of men similar to those diversities which distinguish one nation from another.

It is a well-attested fact that, among negroes and other dark-coloured tribes, individuals of the albino and xanthous complexions are not unfrequently born; and with respect to form and structure, and the texture of the skin and hair, many instances are recorded wherein

surprising peculiarities have made their appearance in a race or family, and some in which these have been transmitted to descendants. The description of such cases would exceed the limits of the present treatise; but an account of several may be seen by referring to the author* whom we already cited.

It appears, therefore, that if we apply to the subject under discussion the seve ral criteria stated at the outset of this inquiry, the results, every one, lead to the inference that the various nations of the globe are descended from the same stock. This inference is drawn, first, from the observed uniformity in the grand laws of their animal economy, allowance, of course, being made for the effects of climate and of particular habits; secondly, from the existence in the same species among the inferior tribes of the creation, of varieties analogous to those which occur in mankind; and thirdly, from the fact of varieties being really known to have spng up among men, more or less similar to those which distinguish different nations. There is, nevertheless, a point at which the similarity between the two cases obviously terminates: the peculiarities which arose in the human species at a remote and unknown period have become the characteristic marks of large nations, whereas those which have made their appearance in later times, have, in general, extended very little beyond the individuals in whom they first showed themselves, and certainly have never attained to anything like a prevalence throughout whole communities. this is a circumstance which it does not seem difficult to explain, if we consider that, ever since the population of the world has been of large amount, the possessors of any peculiar organisation have borne such a very small numerical proportion to the nation to which they belonged, that it is no way surprising that they should soon have been lost in the general mass, still less that they should have failed to impress it with their own peculiar characters. In the early period of the world, when mankind, few in numbers, were beginning to disperse themselves in detached bodies over the face of the earth, the case was altogether different, and we can easily understand how, if any varieties of colour, form, or structure, then originated in the human

But

* Dr. Prichard's "Researches into the Physical History of Mankind."