[ 30 MAC Macedon. from their fairs and towns of commerce, as well as all the conveniences of their harbours and shipping; a concession which Philip took care to secure in the most effectual manner. 35 Marries 36 combina Having now not only established his sovereignty in the most effectual manner, but rendered himself very powerful and formidable to his neighbours, Philip determined to enjoy some repose from his fatigues. Having formed an alliance with Arybbas king of Epirus, he in the year 357 B. C. married Olympias the sisOlympias ter of that prince; a match thought the more eligible, as the kings of Epirus were supposed to be descended from Achilles. The nuptials were solemnized at Pella with great pomp, and several months were spent in shows and diversions; during which Philip showed such an extreme proneness to vice of every kind, as disgraced him in the eyes of his neighbours, and most probably laid the foundation of his future domestic unA general happiness. So much was this behaviour of the Macetion of the donian monarch taken notice of by the neighbouring neighbour states, that the Paonians and Illyrians threw off the ing princes yoke, engaging in their schemes the king of Thrace: formed a and notwithstanding the insane state of that prince, their gainst him. designs were now carried on with more judgment than Philip, however, notwas usual with barbarians. withstanding his dissipation, got warning of his dan ger in sufficient time to prevent the bad consequences which might have ensued had the confederates got time to bring their matters to a proper bearing. Early in the spring 356 he took the field with the flower of the Macedonian troops. Having marched in person against the Paonians and Thracians, he despatched Defeats his Parmenio his best general into Illyria. Both enterprises proved successful; and while Philip returned victorious from Thrace, he received an account of the victory gained by Parmenio; a second messenger informed him of a victory gained by his chariot at the Olympic games; and a third, that Olympias had been Alexander delivered of a son at Pella. This was the celebrated the Great. Alexander, to whom the diviners prophesied the highest prosperity and glory, as being born in such auspicious circumstances. 37 enemies. 38 Birth of 39 Aristotle tor. He next Paonia was A short time after the birth of Alexander, Philip The letter was appointed wrote a letter to the philosopher Aristotle, whom he his precep- chose for preceptor to his young son. We written with great brevity, containing only the following words: "Know that a son is born to us. We asthank the gods not so much for their gift, as for bestowing it at a time when Aristotle lives. sure ourselves that you will form him a prince worthy of his father, and worthy of Macedon." Extent of set about the farther enlargement of his territories, the Mace which were already very considerable. donian ter- now one of his provinces: on the east his dominions extended to the sea of Thasos, and on the west to the lake Lychnidus. The Thessalians were in effect subject to his jurisdiction, and the possession of Amphipolis had secured him many commercial advantages; he had a numerous and well-disciplined army, with plentiful resources for supporting such an armament, and carrying through the other schemes suggested by his ambition; though his deep and impenetrable policy rendered him more truly formidable than all these and of all put together. His first scheme was the reduction of Olynthus, the most populous and fertile country on ritories. 41 Projects the conquest of Olynthus Greece. ] the borders of Macedon; after which his ambition Macedon. 42 the Pho- 43 an eye at By this decree all Greece was again involved in the war called Phocian, from the name of the city about troubles was engaged in Thrace, where a civil war had which it commenced. Philip at the beginning of the taken place among the sons of Cotys; and wherever His encroachments at out to his own advantage. Philip interfered, he was sure to make matters turn length became so enormous, that Kersobletes, the most the Thracian Chersonesus to the Athenians; who powerful of the contending princes, agreed to cede armament to take possession of it. In this expedition immediately sent Chares at the head of a powerful the town of Sestos was taken by storm, and the inhaed himself in the siege of Methone in Pieria. This city Philip loses the siege of bitants cruelly treated by Chares, while Philip employhe likewise reduced; but the king lost an eye at the siege in the following extraordinary manner, if we may give Methone. named Aster, had, it seems, offered his services to Phicredit to some ancient historians. A celebrated archer, that he could hit the swiftest bird on the wing. Philip, being represented as such an excellent marksman, lip replied, that he would be of excellent use if they were to make war with starlings. Aster, disgusted with this reception, went over to the enemy, and with an When the weapon eye. arrow wounded the king in the was extracted, it was found to have on it the following ordered the arrow to be shot back again, with another inscription: "For the right eye of Philip." The king hanged when the town was taken. A report was raised inscription importing that he would cause Aster to be after Philip's death, that he had lost his eye by prying too narrowly into the amours of Olympias and Jupiter Ammon; which the vanity of his successor prompted him to cherish, as his flatterers had probably been the inventors of it. him; 45 Macedon protect him against the power of Philip, by whom he was sensible that he would soon be attacked. The king accordingly marched into Thessaly with a considerable army, defeated Phyallus the brother of Onomarchus, whom the latter had sent into the country with a detachment of 7000 men. After this be besieged and took the city of Pegasæ, driving the enemy towards the frontiers of Phocis. Onomarchus then advanced with the whole army; and Philip, though inferior in numbers, did not decline the engagement. The Phocians at first gave ground, on which the Macedonians pursued, but in good order; but coming near a precipice, on the top of which Onomarchus had posted a detachment of soldiers, the latter rolled down stones who defeats and fragments of the rock in such a manner as did dreadful execution, and threw them into the utmost disorder. Philip, however, rallied his troops with great presence of mind, and prevented the Phocians from gaining any farther advantage than they had already done; saying, as he drew off his men, that they did not retreat through fear, but like rams, in order to strike with the greater vigour. Nor was he long before he made good his assertion; for having re-cruited his army with the greatest expedition, he returned into Thessaly at the head of 20,000 foot and 500 horse, where he was met by Onomarchus. The last defeat- Macedonians at this time were superior in number to their enemies; and Philip moreover took care to remind them, that their quarrel was that of heaven, and that their enemies had been guilty of sacrilege, by profaning the temple of Delphi. That they might be still more animated in the cause, he put crowns of laurel on their heads. Thus fired by enthusiasm, and having besides the advantage of numbers, the Phocians were altogether unable to withstand there. They threw away their arms and fled towards the sea, where they expected to have been relieved by Chares, who, with the Athenian fleet, was nigh the shore: but in this they were disappointed, for he made no attempt to save them. Upwards of 6000 perished in the field of battle or in the pursuit, and 3000 were taken prisonThe body of Onomarchus being found among the slain, was by order of Philip hung upon a gibbet as a mark of infamy, on account of his having polluted the temple; the bodies of the rest were thrown into the sea, as being all partakers of the same crime. The fate of the prisoners is not known, by reason of an ambiguity in a sentence of Diodorus Siculus, which may imply that they were drowned, though he does not expressly say so. 46 but is at ed and killed. 47 sues his ambitious schemes. ers. After this victory, Philip set about the settlement Philip pur- of. Thessaly, waiting only for an opportunity to put in execution his favourite scheme of invading Greece. In the mean time, he rejoiced to see the states weakening each other by their mutual dissensions; of which he never failed to take advantage as far as possible. He now, however, began to throw off the mask with regard to the Olynthians, whom he had long deceived with fair promises. Having detached Kersobletes from the interest of the Athenians, he established him in the sovereignty of Thrace; not out of any good will, but with a view to destroy him whenever a proper opportunity offered. Were he once possessed of the, dominions of that prince, the way to Byzantium was open to him; the possession of which must have been a 2 48 thenians. great temptation to Philip, who well knew how to Macedon. value the importance of its situation both with respect to commerce and war: and in order to pave the way to this important conquest, he attacked the fortress of Heræum, a small and in itself unimportant place, though, by reason of its neighbourhood to Byzantium, the acquisition was valuable to Philip. The Is opposed Athenians, however, at last began to perceive the de- by the Asigns of Philip, and determined to counteract them. For this purpose they entered into an alliance with Olynthus; and having warned Kersobletes of his danger, they ordered a powerful fleet to the defence of the Heræum. But these vigorous measures were soon counteracted by the report of Philip's death, which bad been occasioned by his wound at Methone, and a distemper arising from the fatigues he had afterwards undergone. The inconstant Athenians too easily gave credit to this report; and, as if all danger had been over with his death, discontinued their preparations, and directed their whole attention to the sacred war. -This contest, instead of being ended by the death of Onomarchus, now raged with double fury. Phy- Continuaallus, above mentioned, the only surviving brother tion of the of Onomarchus, undertook the cause of the Phocians; Phocian and his affairs becoming every day more and more desperate, he undertook the most unaccountable method of retrieving them which could be imagined: having converted into ready money the most precious materials belonging to the temple at Delphi, and with this treasure doubled the pay of his soldiers. But this new piece of sacrilege, he indeed brought many adventurers to his standard, though he cut off all hopes of mercy for himself or his party should he be defeated. Having the assistance of 1000 Lacedæmonians, 2000 Achæans, and 5000 Athenian foot, with 400 cavalry, he was still enabled to make a very formidable appearance; and the Phocians took the field with great prospect of success. war. 49 50 Philip now thought it time to throw off the mask Philip enentirely, for which the proceedings of the Athenians, gages in particularly their league with Olynthus, furnished him the quarrel. with a plausible pretext; and the revenging such horrid sacrilege as had been committed at Delphi seemed to give him a title to march at the head of an army into Greece. The superstition of the Greeks, however, had not yet blinded them to such a degree, but they could easily perceive that Philip's piety was a mere pretence, and that his real design was to invade and conquer the whole country. The Athenians no sooner heard of the march of the Macedonian army, than they despatched, with all expedition, a strong guard to secure the pass of Thermopyla; so that Philip was obliged to return greatly chagrined and dis-Is preventappointed. Their next step was to call an assembly, ed from ento deliberate upon the measures proper to be taken in tering Greece. order to restrain the ambition of the Macedonian monarch; and this assembly is rendered memorable by the first appearance of Demosthenes as an orator against Philip. Athens for some time had been in a very alarming situation. They were deeply involved in the sacred war; their northern possessions were continually insulted and plundered by Philip; while a number of his mercenary partisans drew off the public attention to such a degree, that, instead, of taking measures to counteract that ambitious prince, they a mused 52 Extreme indolence and care nians. Macedon. mused themselves with speculations about the designs of the Persian monarch, who was preparing for war against the Cyprians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians. Isocrates the celebrated orator, and Phocion the statesman, joined the multitude in their present opinion, lessness of though not from any mercenary motives, but purely the Athe- from a sense of the unsteady conduct of the Athenians; who, they were assured, could not contend with a prince of the vigour and activity of Philip; and therefore exhorted them by all means to cultivate the friendship of Philip, whom they could not oppose with any Advice of probability of success. Isocrates, indeed, greatly wishIsocrates ed for an expedition into Asia, and looked upon Philip to be the only general capable of conducting it, though at present the Greeks had no pretence for making war upon the Persians, but that of revenging former injuries and on this subject he addressed a discourse to Philip himself; and it is even said, that Isocrates, by the power of his rhetoric, prevailed upon Philip and the Athenians to lay aside their animosities for a short time, and consent to undertake this expedition in conjunction. 53 the orator to them. 54 He and thenes. If this coalition, however, did really take place, it Phocion was of very short duration. The views of Phocion are opposed and Isocrates were violently opposed by Demosthenes. by Demos- Though sensible of the corruption and degeneracy of his countrymen, he hoped to be able to rouse them from their lethargy by dint of his eloquence; a talent he had been at great pains to cultivate, and in which he is said to have excelled all men that ever existed. 55 Substance In his first addresses to the people, this celebrated of his first orator exhorted them to awake from their indolence, discourses. and to assume the direction of their own affairs. They had been too long governed, he said, by the incapacity of a few ambitious men, to the great disadvantage as well as disgrace of the community. In the first place, an orator who had placed himself at the head of a faction of no more than 300 or 400, availed him'self and his followers of the carelessness and negligence of the people, to rule them at pleasure. From a consideration of their present weakness and corruption, as well as of the designs and commotions of the neigh bouring powers, he advised them to abandon all romantic and distant schemes of ambition; and instead of carrying their arms into remote countries, to prepare for repelling the attacks which might be made upon their own dominions. He insisted also upon a better regulation of their finances, a more equal distribution of the public burdens, in proportion to the abilities of those upon whom they were laid, and upon the retrenching many superfluous expences. Having pointed out in a strong light the vigorous conduct of Philip; and shown by what means he had attained to such a respectable footing in the world, he next laid down a proper plan for their military operations. He told them, that they were not yet prepared to meet Philip in the field; they must begin with protecting Olynthus and the Chersonesus, for which it would be necessary to raise a body of 2000 light armed troops, with a due proportion of cavalry, which ought to be transported under a proper convoy to the islands of Lemnos, Thasos, and Sciathos, in the neigh bourhood of Macedon. In these they would enjoy all kinds of necessaries in abundance, and might avail themselves of every favourable incident, to appear at Macedon. the first summons of their allies; and either to repel the incursions of the Macedonians, or harass their territories. While this was going on, more vigorous preparations might be made for war at home; and it was proposed, that only the fourth part of the Athenian citizens should enlist, and no more supplies were wanted at present but 90 talents. But notwithstanding the moderation of these proposals, and the urgent necessities of the state, it was impossible to prevail upon the indolent and careless Athenians to provide for their own safety. They appear, indeed, at this time to have been desperately sunk in effeminacy and dissipation; which disposition Philip took care to encourage to the utmost of his power. There was an assembly in the city called the Sixty, from their consisting originally of that number, who met expressly for the purposes of extinguishing all care about public affairs, and to intoxicate themselves with every kind of pleasure they had in their power. With this assembly Philip was so well pleased, that he sent them money to support their extravagancies; and so effectually did they answer his purposes, that all the eloquence of Demosthenes could not counteract the speeches of orators much his inferiors when backed by Macedonian gold. Philip himself, as we have already hinted, was excessively debauched in his private character, and the most shameful stories are related of him by the ancient writers, particularly by Demosthenes. Theopompus, too, an author who flourished in the time of Alexander, and was rewarded and honoured by that monarch, also speaks of him in such terms as we cannot with decency relate: but these accounts, coming from the avowed enemies of the king, are scarcely to be credited; and perhaps policy, as well as inclination, might contribute somewhat to this scandalous behaviour, that he might thereby recommend himself to the libertines of Athens, and prevent even many of the more thinking part of the people from suspecting his designs. But in whatever excesses he might at times indulge himself, he never lost sight of his main object, the subjugation of the Greek states. On pretence of being in want of money to defray the expence of his buildings, he borrowed money at a very high price throughout the whole country; and this he found an easy matter to do, as the dissipation of the Delphic treasures had rendered cash very plentiful in Greece. Thus he attached his creditors firmly to his own interest; and on pretence of paying debts, was enabled without molestation to bestow a number of pensions and gratuitiesupon the Athenian orators, who by their treacherous harangues contributed greatly to the ruin of their country; at least as far as it could be ruined by subjection to a prince who would have obliged them to remain at peace, and apply themselves to useful arts. These he himself encouraged in a very eminent degree. The greatest part of his time was employed at Pella, which city he adorned in the most magnificent manner with temples, theatres, and porticoes. He invited by liberal rewards, the most ingenious artists in Greece; and as many of these met with very little encouragement in their own country, great numbers flocked to him from all quarters. In the government of his people, also, Philip behaved with the utmost impartiality : listening with condescension to the complaints of the meanest The fate of Olynthus was now soon determined. Macedo n. meanest of his subjects, and keeping up a constant cor- that the king of Macedon's assurances ought to give Macedon. respondence with those whom he thought worthy of his them full satisfaction. He said, that for his part, acquaintance; from which, it is not easy to imagine he was not politician enough to see any thing of dishow he could be so guilty of the vices we have already guise or dissimulation in the king's conduct; that there mentioned from some ancient historians. was great danger in distrusting princes; and that the surest method of putting men upon deceit was to show that we suspected them of it. The rest of the plenipotentiaries concurred with schines; and the people, desirous of quiet, and addicted to pleasure, easily gave credit to all that was said, and decreed that the peace should be kept. All this was the easier brought about, because Phocion, the worthiest man in the republic, did not oppose Philip; which was owing to his having a just sense of the state his country was in. He conceived, that the Athenians of those times were nothing like their ancestors; and therefore, as he expressed himself on another occasion, he was desirous, since they would not be at the head of Greece themselves, that they would at least be upon good terms with that power which would be so. Over 56 were well founded; for the Thebans, who were at the head of the league against the Phocians, solicited him on the one side, and the states confederate with the Phocians did the like on the other. He answered neither, yet held both in dependence. In his heart he favoured the Thebans, or rather placed his hopes of favouring his own cause in that state; for he well knew, that the Athenians, Spartans, and other states allied with Phocis, would never allow him to pass Thermopylae, and lead an army into their territories. So much respect, however, did he show to the ambassadors from these states, particularly Ctesiphon and Phrynon, who came from Athens, that they believed him to be in their interest, and reported as much to their masters. The Athereaches the nians, who were now dissolved in ease and luxury, reAthenians, ceived this news with great satisfaction; and named immediately ten plenipotentiaries to go and treat of a full and lasting peace with Philip. Among these plenipotentiaries were Demosthenes and Eschines, the most celebrated orators in Athens. Philip gave directions that these ambassadors should be treated with the utmost civility; naming, at the same time, three of his ministers to confer with them, viz. Antipater, Parmenio, and Eurylochus. Demosthenes being obliged to return to Athens, recommended it to his colleagues not to carry on their negociations with Philip's deputies; but to proceed with all diligence to court, there to confer with the king himself. The ambassadors, however, were so far from following his instructions, that they suffered themselves to be put off for three months by the arts of Philip and his mini and at last concludes a peace. sters. In the mean time, the king took from the Athenians such places in Thrace as might best cover his frontiers; giving their plenipotentiaries, in their stead, abundance of fair promises, and the strongest assurances that his good will should be as beneficial to them as ever their colonies had been. At last a peace was concluded; but then the ratification of it was deferred till Philip had possessed himself of Pherea in Thessaly, and saw himself at the head of a numerous army: then he ratified the treaty; and dismissed the plenipotentiaries with assurances, that he would be ready at all times to give the Athenians proofs of his friendship. On their return to Athens, when this matter came to be debated before the people, Demosthenes plainly told them, that, in his opinion, the promises of Philip ought not to be relied on, because they appeared to be of little significance in themselves, and came from a prince of so much art, and so little fidelity, that they could derive no authority from their maker. Æschines, on the other hand, gave it as his sentiment, 57 Philip, who knew how to use as well as to procure Passes opportunity, while the Athenians were in this good Thermohumour, passed Thermopylae, without their knowing ends the whether he would fall on Phocis or Thebes; but he Phocian quickly undeceived them, by commanding his soldiers war. to put on crowns of laurel, declaring them thereby the troops of Apollo, and himself the lieutenant-general of that god. He then entered Phocis with an air of triumph; which so terrified the Phocians, whom he had caused to be proclaimed sacrilegious persons, that they immediately dismissed all thoughts of defence, and without more ado submitted to his mercy. Thus the Phocian war, which had so long employed all Greece, was ended without a stroke; and the judgement on the Phocians remitted to the Amphictyons, or grand council of Greece. By their decree the walls of three Phocian cities were demolished, the people were forbid to inhabit in any but villages, to pay a yearly tribute of 60 talents, and never to make use either of horses or arms till they had repaid to the temple of Apollo the money they had sacrilegiously carried from thence. Their arms were taken from them, broken to pieces, and burnt; their double voice in the council was taken from them, and given to the Macedonians. Other orders were made for settling the affairs both of religion and state throughout Greece: all of which were executed by Philip with great exactness and moderation, he paying the most profound respect to the council; and, when he had performed its commands, retiring peaceably with his army back to Macedon, which gained him great reputation. 58 At Athens alone, the justice and piety of Philip was not understood. The people began to see, though a little too late, that they had been abused and deceived by those who had negociated the late peace. They Is again saw that, through their acceptance of it, the Phocians opposed by were destroyed; that Philip was become master of the AtheThermopyle, and might enter Greece when he plea-nians. sed; that, in abandoning their allies, they had abandoned themselves; and that, in all probability, they might soon feel the weight of his power, whom they had so foolishly trusted: they therefore began to take new and hostile measures; they ordered that the women should retire out of the villages into the city, their walls be repaired, and their forts new strengthen MAC [ 305 ] that they ought to be cautious, and to weigh well the Macedon. Macedon. ed. They seemed inclined to question Philip's elecmerits of this cause before they took any resolution. tion into the council of the Amphictyons, because it He said, that it was true Philip had not as yet athad been done without their consent; and even to protacked Attica, or pretended to make a descent on their In all likelihood they had carceed to an open war. territories in Greece, or to force his way into their ried things to extravagancy, if Demosthenes had not ports; when it came to that, he was of opinion they interposed. He told them, that though he was not would be hardly able to defend themselves; wherefore for making the peace, he was however for keeping it; he thought such men were to be esteemed as fought and that he saw no manner of occasion for their enterto protect their frontiers, in order to keep Philip as ing into so unequal a contest as would needs ensue, if they took up arms, not only against Philip, but long as might be at a distance: whereupon he moved, that, instead of disowning what Diopithes had done, or against all the states concurring with him in the late transactions. This seems to have cooled the rage of directing him to dismiss his army, they should send him over recruits, and show the king of Macedon they knew the Athenians; and to have brought them to think of ruining Philip by degrees, as by degrees they had raised how to protect their territories, and to maintain the dignity of their state, as well as their ancestors. These him. arguments had such an effect, that a decree was made conformable to his motion. 59 Pursues his The fame of his achievements without the bounds conquests of Macedon having disposed the subjects of Philip to in Thrace. hope every thing from his conduct, and the several states of Greece to desire above all things his friendship; that prudent monarch laid hold of this favourable situation to fix his dominion on such a stable foundation as that a reverse of fortune should not immediateTo this end, while he carried on his ly destroy it. negociations through Greece, he likewise kept his army in exercise, by taking several places in Thrace, His domi- which terribly incommoded the Athenians. Diopinions in thes, who had the government of the Athenian colovaded by nies in those parts, perceiving well what end Philip Diopithes; had in view, did not stay for instructions from home; 60 but having raised with much expedition a considera- The king, who, on account of the operations of the 61 Demosthe nes. 62 Philip's While affairs stood thus, the Illyrians recovering courage, and seeing Philip at such a distance, harassed the frontiers of Macedon, and threatened a formidable invasion but Philip, by quick marches, arrived on the borders of Illyricum: and struck this barbarous people with such a panic, that they were glad to compound for their former depredations at the price he was pleased to set. Most of the Greek cities in Thrace now sought the friendship of the king, and entered into a league with him for their mutual defence. As it cannot be supposed that each of these free cities had a power equal to that of Philip, we may therefore look upon him as their protector. About this time Philip's schemes negociations in Peloponnesus began to come to light; defeated. the Argives and Messenians, growing weary of that tyrannical authority which the Spartans exercised over them, applied to Thebes for assistance; and the Thebans out of their natural aversion to Sparta, sought to open a passage for Philip into Peloponnesus, that, in conjunction with them, he might humble the Lacedæmonians. Philip readily accepted the offer; and resolved to procure a decree from the Amphictyons, directing the Lacedæmonians to leave Argos and Messene free; which if they complied not with, he, as the lieutenant of the Amphictyons, might, with great appearance of justice, march with a body of troops to enforce their order. When Sparta had intelligence of this, she immediately applied to Athens, earnestly entreating assistance, as in the common cause of Greece. Argives and Messenians, on the other hand, laboured assiduously to gain the Athenians to their side; alleging that, if they were friends to liberty, they ought to assist those whose only aim was to be free. Demosthenes, at this juncture, outwrestled Philip, if we may borrow that king's expression; for, by a vehement harangue, he not only determined his own citizens to become the avowed enemies of the king, but also made the Argives and Messenians not over fond of him for an ally; which when Philip perceived, he laid aside all thoughts of this enterprise for the present, and began to practise in Eubœa. The This county, now called Negropont, is separated from Greece by the Euripus, a strait so narrow, that Euboea might easily be united to the continent. This situation made Philip call it the fetters of Greece, which he therefore sought to have in his own hands. There had been for some years great disturbances in that thither, ૨૧ country; under colour of which, Philip scnt forces + |