is small: they employ brass, which is imported. There, as in Gaul, is timber of every description, except beech and fir. They do not regard it lawful to eat the hare, and the cock, and the goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure. The climate is more temperate than in Gaul, the colds being less severe... The most civilized of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent, which is entirely a maritime district, nor do they differ much from the Gallic customs. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britains, indeed, dye themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their children; but if there be any issue by these wives, they are reputed to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first espoused when a virgin. (Cæsar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, book V, c. 12, 14.) 16. The Characteristics of the Britons Strabo In the Fourth Book of the Geography of STRABO (b. circa 50 B.C.; d. 21 A.D.?) we find an interesting account of the British Islands and their inhabitants. Strabo gathers and reflects the opinions of the historians and geographers who preceded him, but he also adds much derived from his own research and observation. His description is not the less valuable because based on the accounts of Pytheas, Posidonius, Artemidorus, Ephorus, Timagenes, Aristotle, Polybius, Asinius, Pollio, and Cæsar. .. The greatest portion of the island is level and woody, although many tracts are hilly. It produces corn, and cattle, and gold, and silver, and iron, which things are brought thence, and also skins and slaves, and dogs sagacious in hunting: and the Celti use these for the purposes of war also, as well as their native dogs. The men are taller than the Celti, with hair less yellow; and slighter in their persons. As an instance of their height, we ourselves saw at Rome some youths who were taller by so much as half a foot than the tallest there; but they were distorted in their lower limbs, and in other respects not symmetrical in their conformation. Their manners are in part like those of the Celti, though in part more simple and barbarous; insomuch that some of them, though possessing plenty of milk, have not skill enough to make cheese, and are totally unacquainted with horticulture and other matters of husbandry. There are several states among them. In their wars they make use of chariots for the most part, as do some of the Celti. Forests are their cities: for having enclosed an ample space with felled trees, here they make themselves huts, and lodge their cattle, though not for any long continuance. Their atmosphere is more subject to rain than to snow; even in their clear days the mist continues a considerable time, insomuch that throughout the whole day the sun is only visible for three or four hours about noontime; and this must be the case also among the Morini and the Menapii, and among all the neighbouring people. The deified Cæsar twice passed over to the island, but quickly returned, having effected nothing of consequence, nor proceeded far into the country, as well on account of some commotions in Celtica, both among his own soldiers and among the barbarians, as because of the loss of many of his ships at the period of the full moon, when both the flux and reflux of the tides were greatly increased. Nevertheless he gained two or three victories over the Britons, although he had transported thither only two legions of his army, and brought away hostages, and slaves, and much other booty. At the present time, however, some of the princes there having, by their embassies and court, gained the friendship of Cæsar Augustus, have dedicated their offerings in the Capitol; and have brought the whole island into a state little short of intimate union with the Romans. They bear moderate taxes laid both on the imports and exports from Celtica; which are ivory bracelets and necklaces, amber, and vessels of glass, and such like mean merchandise; wherefore the island would be hardly worth a garrison, for it would require at least one legion and some cavalry to enforce tribute from them; and the total expenditure for the army would be equal to the additional revenue: for if a tribute were levied, of necessity the imposts must be diminished, and at the same time some dangers would be incurred if force were to be employed. (Strabonis Geographiæ, lib. I., ed. Meineke, Teubner Text, 1866.) 17. The Tin Mines of Britain Diodorus Siculus The History, or Bibliotheca, of DIODORUS SICULUS was probably 'written in the last half of the first century of our era. The work has not been preserved in its entirety. From the fragments relating to Britain I have selected one which speaks of the tin trade of that island. It was to the product of its mines that Britain owed its earliest importance. Further they say that its aboriginal tribes inhabit Britain, in their usages still preserving the primitive modes of life; for in their wars they use chariots, as the ancient Greek heroes are reported to have done in the Trojan war, and they have mean habitations, constructed for the most part of reeds or of wood, and they gather in their harvest by cutting off the ears of corn and storing them in subterraneous repositories: that they cull therefrom daily such as are old, and, dressing them, have thence their sustenance: that they are simple in their manners, and far removed from the cunning and wickedness of men of the present day that their modes of living are frugal, and greatly differing from the luxury consequent on riches: that the island is thickly inhabited, and the temperature of the air exceedingly cold, inasmuch as it lies directly beneath the north: and that they have many kings and princes, and for the most part live peaceably together. But concerning its institutions and other peculiarities we shall write at detail when we arrive at Cæsar's expedition into Britain: at present we shall speak of the tin which is there produced. They who dwell near that promontory of Britain which is called Belerium are singularly fond of strangers, and, from their intercourse with foreign merchants, civilized in their habits. These people obtain the tin by skilfully working the soil which produces it; this being rocky, has carthy interstices, in which, working the ore, and then fusing, they reduce it to metal; and when they have formed it into cubical shapes, they convey it to a certain island, lying off Britain, named Ictis: for at the low tides the intervening space being laid dry, they carry thither, in waggons, the tin in great abundance. A singular circumstance happens with respect to the neighbouring islands lying between Europe and Britain; for at the high tides, the intervening passage being flooded, they seem islands; but at the low tides, the sea retreating and leaving much space dry, they appear peninsulas. From hence the merchants purchase the tin from the natives, and carry it across into Gaul; and finally journeying by land through Gaul for about thirty days, they convey their burdens on horses to the outlet of the river Rhone. This much, therefore, to have spoken concerning tin may suffice. (Diodori Siculi Bibliotheca Historica, ed. Vogel, Teubner Text, in progress.) 18. Phases of the Roman Occupation Tacitus No Roman writer has given a description so comprehensive and clear of methods of war in Britain as has TACITUS. In the Life of Agricola this author furnishes information regarding the British Islands and their inhabitants, which is of utmost value to the student. Tacitus possessed peculiar facilities for directly obtaining authentic and minute information regarding the actual occurrences in the country of the Britons. Who were the first inhabitants of Britain, whether indigenous or immigrants, is a question involved in the obscurity usual among barbarians. Their temperament of body is various, whence deductions are formed of their different origins. Thus, the ruddy hair and large limbs of the Caledonians point out a German derivation. The swarthy complexion and curled hair of the Silures, together with their situation opposite to Spain, render it probable that a colony of the ancient Iberi possessed themselves of that territory. They who are nearest Gaul resemble the inhabitants of that country; whether from the duration of hereditary influence, or whether it be that when lands jut forward in opposite directions, climate gives the same condition of body to the inhabitants of both. On a general survey, however, it appears probable that the Gauls originally took possession of the neighbouring coast. The sacred rites and superstitions of these people are discernible among the Britons. The languages of the two nations do not greatly differ. The same audacity in provoking danger, and irresolution in facing it when present, is observable in both. The Britons, however, display more ferocity, not being yet softened by a long peace: for it appears from history that the Gauls were once renowned in war, till, losing their valour with their liberty, languor and indolence entered among them. The same change has also taken place among those of the Britons who have been long subdued; but the rest continue such as the Gauls formerly were. Their military strength consists in infantry: some nations also make use of chariots in war; in the management of which, the most honourable person guides the reins, while his dependents fight from the chariot. The Britons were formerly governed by kings, but at present they are divided in factions and parties among their chiefs; and this want of union for concerting some general plan is the most favourable circumstance to us, in our designs against so powerful a people. It is seldom that two or three communities concur in repelling the common danger; and thus, while they engage singly, they are all subdued. The sky in this country is deformed by clouds and frequent rains; but the cold is never extremely rigorous. The length of the days greatly exceeds that in our part of the world. The nights are bright, and, at the extremity of the island, so short, that the close and the return of day is scarcely distinguished by a perceptible interval. It is even asserted that, when clouds do not intervene, the splendour of the sun is visible during the whole night, and that it does not appear to rise and set, but to move across. The cause of this is, that the extreme and flat parts of the earth, casting a low shadow, do not throw up the darkness, and so night falls beneath the sky and the stars. The soil, though improper for the olive, the vine, and other productions of warmer climates, is fertile, and suitable for corn. Growth is quick, but maturation slow; both from the same cause, the great humidity of the ground and the atmosphere. The earth yields gold and silver and other metals, the rewards of victory. The ocean produces pearls, but of a cloudy and livid hue; which some impute to unskilfulness in the gatherers; for in the Red Sea the fish are plucked from the rocks alive and vigorous, but in Britain they are collected as the sea throws them up. For my own part, I can more readily conceive that the defect is in the nature of the pearls, than in our avarice. The Britons cheerfully submit to levies, tributes, and the other services of government, if they are not treated injuriously; but such treatment they bear with impatience, their subjection only extending to obedience, not to servitude. Accordingly Julius Cæsar, the first who entered Britain with an army, although he terrified the inhabitants by a successful engagement, and became master of the shore, may be considered rather to have transmitted the discovery than the possession of the country to posterity... In the beginning of the next summer, Agricola... having sent forwards his fleet to spread its ravages through various parts of the coast, in order to excite an extensive and dubious alarm, he marched with an army equipped for expedition, to which he had joined the bravest of the Britons whose fidelity had been proved by a long allegiance, and arrived at the Grampian hills, where the enemy was already encamped. For the Britons, undismayed by the event of the former action, expecting revenge or slavery, and at length taught that the common danger was to be repelled by union alone, |