account were the people industrious. Many of the most beautiful pasture grounds are totally neglected, and the luxuriant grass is suffered to rot. Cattle decrease in size as we advance north; those of Archangel, however, are of the large Dutch breed. In Russian Lapland rein-deers are numerous, and perform the different offices of the horse, the cow, and the sheep. In Kamtschatka dogs are used instead of this useful animal. The terrible urus, or bison, is still found in the Caucasian Mountains and in the Polish forests.25; and the argali, or wild sheep, is yet hunted in southern Siberia. The ibex, or rock-goat, is frequent on the Caucasian precipices; and large stags occur in the Baikalian Mountains, with the musk-deer and wild boar. Wolves, bears, and lynxes are common. Several species of hares, little known in other regions, are found in Siberia; and the castor, or beaver, is an inhabitant of the Jenisea. The walrus, or large seal, once termed the sea-horse, is common on the Arctic shores, while the common seal is found in the Sea of Azof and the Black Sea.

Birds.] Geese of various species, ducks, turkeys, hens, and pigeons, are found in Russia. Among the wild birds are vultures, falcons, owls, ravens, crows, cuckoos, wood-peckers, ice-birds, bee-birds, lapwings, divers, ducks, albatrosses, petrels, pelicans, mews, sea-swallows, herons-of which one species yields the plume worn by the wealthy Kirgisses— snipes, water-fowls, bustards, pheasants, partridges, blackcocks, woodcocks, the Lagopus corylorum, wild-pigeons, larks, starlings, and many others. Singing birds are upon the whole rare in Russia.

Fish.] Eels, shell-fish, cod, salmon, soles, perches, mackarels, pikes, herrings, carps, sterlets, sturgeon, sharks, skates, lampreys, and a variety of other species, are found in the seas and rivers of this kingdom.

Insects.] Among the most valuable insects of Russia is the Polish cochineal or chermes, the scarlet grains of which are sometimes sold for two or three rubles the pound. The silk-worm is reared in Taurida and the Ukraine. There are several kinds of flies, one of which is very destructive to the rein-deer. Here is also found the Pityocampasis, or pinecaterpillar, (Bostrichus piniperda), 26 the Asiatic kakalaks, (Blatta orientalis), and the tarantula and cantharides. The scolopendra morsitans is very dangerous in the south of Taurida. Corals are found in different places; the Teredo navalis, so destructive to naval timber, infests the Black Sea. Among the amphibious animals, are turtles, frogs, lizards, and vipers, particularly the anguis ventralis.

CHAP. IV. POPULATION-MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE -MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY.

To state with precision the population of this extensive empire, which comprehends so many different nations and tribes, and is continually augmenting both by conquest and internal improvement, and of which no regular census is taken, is impossible. In this case, probable approxima

25" In tractu Saltus Hercynii et in omni Septemtrionali plaga bisontes frequentissimi sunt, boves feris similes, setosi, colla jubis horridi, ultra tauros pernicitate vigentes; capti assuescere manu nequeunt. Sunt et uri, quos imperitum vulgus vocat bubalos." Solinus c. 23. Vide etiam Cæsaris B. G. vi. 28. et Cuvier, Recherches sur les ossemens fosselis, T. iv. p. 108, seq.

The Pityocampasis is never found in the higher latitudes. It is the Bombir pityocampa of Fabricius, and greatly resembles the processionary caterpillar of the oak

tion is the utmost that can be attained. Georgi's details are very faulty; and Wichmann, himself a Russian, who wrote in 1813, fails to satisfy the inquirer. The Memoires de l'Academie de Petersburg gives the population of the whole empire, in 1806, as 41,253,483, in which the inhabitants of Petersburg and Moscow, the military and their families, and the Nomades, amounting altogether to 2,960,000, are included. Herrmann calculates the annual increase of the Russian population, from the excess of births over deaths, at 600,000 annually; but he believes that this increase will rather diminish in future. Hassel's calculation is founded on the census of 1793, and reckoning the annual increase at 15 on each 1000, gives in 1823, a population for the whole of European Russia, of 45,633,203, and for the whole empire 59,263,700. The population of Russia thus exceeds that of any other European State. The population of France and Austria is nearest to it in Europe; but that of China greatly exceeds it, and also that of the British empire, reckoning its colonies. The proportion of the Russian population to that of the rest of Europe is as 44 to 187, or as 1 to 44; and including the population of Asiatic Russia, of the whole inhabitants of the earth are subject to the Russian sceptre. The ninth part of the whole population resides in towns, of which there are 1,602 in European Russia, besides 201,000 burgbs and villages.27

Tribes.] No kingdom upon earth is inhabited by so many different tribes, unlike in derivation and language, manners and religion, as Russia. The limits of the empire contain upwards of one hundred of these nations, speaking at least forty different languages. They may, however, be reduced under eight principal heads, viz. :-Slavonians, Finns, Tartars, Caucasian tribes, Mongols, Mandshurs, Polar tribes, and colonists and settlers. Of these the European population is as follows:

Slavonians.] I. Slavonians, including-1st, The Russians, properly so called, on this side of the Ural. This is a strong race of men, of middle stature and hardy temperament a quality which they owe in a great degree to their manner of life; but the Russian countenance is generally deficient in expression. They are good-natured, cheerful, lively, irritable, and prone to indulge to excess in spirituous liquors. They have not the nice feelings of honour known in other countries; but courage, skill, strength, and presence of mind, render them the best materials for soldiers in Europe. All the Russians cannot with justice be described as exhibiting the same manners, or a similar mode of life. Those of a superior rank imitate the more polished nations of Europe, particularly the French and the British. Those of an inferior class will no doubt imitate their superiors, but it must be slowly, and in a partial manner; they still, therefore, retain as much of their ancient mode of life as to distinguish them, with sufficient accuracy, from every other "The following table, though old, is curious, as exhibiting the rapid increase of population in European Russia :

European nation. As an agriculturist, the Russian cultivates his paternal acres on the same system that his ancestors did before him, without any wish to adopt the improvements of modern times. As a merchant, he is cunning, industrious, and keen. He has no original genius; but a happy conception enables him readily to appropriate the foreign arts; and no one possesses in a higher degree the faculty of imitation. Frederick II. described the Russian character as compounded of distrust and cunning. The Russian is indolent, but greedy. Ready and able to undertake every thing, but changeable in the extreme; he conceives himself an adept in every science as soon as he has mastered its terms. He is very religious, but also exceedingly superstitious. No people place more implicit confidence in charms, omens, amulets, and the favour of particular saints. At the same time, they are extremely tolerant, and no religious persecution has ever occurred in the annals of Russian history. They are likewise polite, hospitable, and generous. The education of the lower ranks is much neglected: the higher ranks are chiefly taught by foreigners. The peasants, in general, wear breeches or trowsers of very coarse linen, with an upper garment, somewhat similar to a coat, formed of coarse cloth, in summer; and in winter, of a sheep skin, with the wool turned inwards. On the legs, instead of stockings, they wear a piece of coarse cloth, or of flannel. Their shoes, or rather sandals, are formed of a kind of platted linden-bark, fixed to the legs with pieces of the same substance. The head is covered with a round hat, or a very high cap. The complexion of the female peasantry is brunette. Their dress is described as having a strong resemblance to that of the women in the Highlands of Scotland,-consisting of petticoats, with a jacket very tightly formed, and a kerchief on the head. All ranks, however, are rapidly adopting the fashions of the other nations of Europe. The female sex are not without a lively disposition and considerable charms; but they are subject to premature old age from the too frequent use of the hot-bath, and in the married state are in general subjected to almost Eastern oppression. The religion of the Russians is that of the Greek church. The upper ranks in Russia feed with the greatest luxury. The food of the inferior class is of the meanest kind. Their bread is of rye, which, with eggs, salt fish, a little bacon, and a great quantity of mushrooms, constitute the chief part of their food. At all their repasts they use a great quantity of garlic. Their common drink is of two kinds, one called quass, a kind of fermented liquor prepared from barley, rye, and oatmeal, mixed together; the other is mead made of honey, and sometimes mixed with the juice of the birch. Both these are willingly relinquished for more powerful liquors, particularly brandy. Whisky distilled from malt is also a favourite liquor with them. Their language is accounted a very pure dialect of the Slavonian; it is copious, expressive, and rich in imagery. The Russians are divided into the Great Russians, inhabiting the northern and middle provinces of Russia, and the Little Russians, including the Cossacks, who, since their submission in 1654, have had a military organization. The European Cossack tribes are the Cossacks of Tschernomorski, or of the Black Sea, amounting to 25,000, and forming six regiments: the Cossacks of the Don, estimated at 190,250, and forming eighty regiments; the Cossacks of the Bug, amounting to 6,383, and forming three regiments; and the Cossacks of Tschugujeu, in the Ukraine, reckoned at 7,646, and forming one regiment. The other Cossack tribes belong to Asiatic Russia. 2d, The second branch of the

Slavonians is the Poles. They inhabit the whole of Poland, and the governments of Kief, Vitebsk, Mohilof, Minsk, Wilna, Podolia, and Volhynia. They are a strong and fine-looking race of men. The Polish women unite to regular features, a fine shape and a certain gracefulness of manner which is seen even in the lower classes. The Pole resembles the Russian in character; but has more patriotism, and manifests a more ardent temperament. The national language and costume still indicate the remains of an independent people. The nobility are numerous; a part of them are possessed of princely riches; the poorer nobles cultivate their own farms; and some of them are so poor as to be obliged to descend to the most menial occupations for subsistence. The Poles are chiefly of the Catholic church. 3d, The Lithuanian branch of the Slavons is found in the governments of Wilna, Grodno, Minsk, Mohilof, Vitebsk, Bialystock, and Augustovo. They are the remains of a nation degraded by slavery and oppression, and now entirely debased by idleness and drunkenness, though not destitute of nobler dispositions. They still preserve their own harmonious and flexible language, and belong chiefly to the Greek church. 4th, The Lettonians and Coures, in the governments of Courland and Livonia, speak a Lithuanian dialect, and profess the Lutheran creed. Their stature is short, but they can endure great fatigue; and the civil rights recently conferred on the peasantry have considerably elevated them in the scale of civilization.

Finns.] II. There are in European Russia-1st, About 1,260,000 Finns Proper. They inhabit the governments of Finland, Petersburg, Olonetz, and Twer. They have their own language, and, with a few exceptions, belong to the Lutheran church. They are a smaller race than the Russians. The men are ill-shaped, with a gloomy countenance, and small gray eyes. They are industrious, phlegmatic, and poor; but honest, and hospitable. In the cultivation of their ungrateful soil they are assisted by the women. 2d, The Esthonians, a second branch of the Finns, amount to 460,000, and are chiefly located in Livonia and Esthonia. They profess the Lutheran creed. Their language is a dialect of the Finnish; and their occupation agriculture. 3d, The Livonians are a small and scattered tribe of 1,500 heads. Their language is still preserved at the Salis. 4th, The Lapponians inhabit the extreme Scandinavian north, and amount to about 7000 heads, who support themselves by hunting, fishing, and pasturing cattle. They are a dwarfish race, seldom exceeding five feet in height; their features are large and flat; their hair yellow, and their beard thin. They are lively, honest, and good natured, and warmly attached to their paternal manners and rude country; but exceedingly superstitious. Their habitations are tents of birch-bark or of skins; their greatest riches are herds of rein-deer. Their language is a Finnish dialect. 5th, The Greek and Lutheran religions are professed by the Syrjäns or Komi, an idle and dissolute tribe, located in the government of Vologda, which has lost its own dialect, and now speaks the common language of the country. 6th, The Tschuvasches on the Volga, in the government of Nishegorod, are a small wandering tribe speaking a dialect more Tartar than Finnish. They profess the Greek religion, but some of them have remained attached to Schamaism. 7th, The Mordynes, a tribe of huntsmen and fishers on the Volga, are chiefly Schamans.

Tartars Proper.] III. The Tartars Proper are a fine race of men of

Turkish descent. The genuine Tartar is of middle size; his limbs are meagre but well-shaped; his head is oval, mouth and eyes small, but the latter black and expressive; his complexion is fresh and lively; his hair dark brown, and teeth white. The whole manners of this tribe are open and dignified: they are hospitably and peaceably inclined. Their language is national, and divided into several dialects. They have many schools, and profess the religion of the Koran. The Tartarian tribes inhabiting European Russia, are those of Kasan, amounting to 18,503, and those of Taurida and Bessarabia, estimated at 200,000. The second division of Tartars is the Nogaiens. They are Mahommedans, but possess considerable resemblance to the Mongols in Taurida. They amount to about 8000 souls.

Calmucks.] IV. The Calmucks are the only branch of European Mongols. They are scattered throughout Taurida and Cherson, and do not exceed 50,000 souls. They differ little from their Asiatic brethren, leading a nomade life, and professing the religion of the Grand Lama. They are rapacious in their habits, and little esteemed either by the Russians or the Cossacks.

Polar Tribes.] V. The Polar people of European Russia are the Samoiedes, on the coast of the Icy Sea, a diminutive race, amounting to about 2,200 persons, who wander about over the marshy plains of the government of Archangel, and speak a language which is kindred to no other Russian dialect. They are good natured and honest; but insufferably phlegmatic, and prone to indulge to excess in spirituous liquors. Fishing and hunting are their sole occupation.

Foreigners.] Among the foreigners in Russia are about 280,000 Germans. The Russian islands of the Baltic are chiefly inhabited by Swedes. The Danes, French, and English, reside chiefly at Petersburg and Archangel. There are about 13,000 Greeks in the government of Ikaterinoslav; and 9000 Armenians in Taurida and the southern districts, besides Arnauts, Wallachians, Turks, Bulgarians, Moldavians, Raizes—a Slavonian tribe, professing the Greek religion-and Gypsies in the southwestern provinces. The Jews in 1820 amounted to 430,000. They are chiefly concentrated in the kingdom of Poland, where they enjoy almost equal rights with the native Christians, and are even employed in the tribunals.

The Russian empire has not yet reached the point of culture of which it is susceptible; yet man alone is not chargeable with its present inferior state, as nature has every where opposed considerable obstacles to improvement. The thinness of the population, and the state of servitude in which a great part of the peasantry yet exist, and which presents no stimulus to industry, greatly opposes even the full cultivation of the better soils. There are also many local difficulties to be surmounted in the exchange of natural products. Thus, in the government of Kief, corn is of so little value that little more is thrashed than the peasant requires for his own subsistence: the rest is left to rot on the field. Wherever these obstacles are removed, and the peasant possesses free property, a visible amelioration in the state of industry is seen.Nowhere does man bear a greater mercantile value than in Russia. There a piece of land is never valued according to size, quality, and produce, but according to the number of hands which cultivate it. The Russian proprietor does not sell his piece of ground, but its inhabit