alliance with Napoleon; and when the war between France and Russia broke out in June, 1812, the king of Prussia sent a corps of 30,000 men to join the French army. In the retreat of December, 1812, general York, commanding this corps, capitulated with the Russian general; and in March, 1813, the king of Prussia declared war against France by joining the Russians. Extraordinary efforts were made in this war by the whole Prussian nation, and every means were taken to inspire them with feelings which the government, when it had no longer need of such excitement, was afterwards the first to suppress. But we cannot enter here into details, which have indeed been partly given in our history of Germany, and will partly be told in the history of France. After the peace of Paris, Prussia, according to treaties previously concluded with Russia and Austria, was to be re-established on the statu quo of the year 1805; but Russia now demanded for itself the whole of Poland, for which Prussia required to be indemnified by the whole kingdom of Saxony. After long negotiations, Prussia obtained more than half of the Saxon territory, with a population of 845,000 souls, under the name of the duchy of Saxony. Those countries which she had lost in the peace of Tilsit, several circles of Western Prussia, which had been given to the grand duchy of Warsaw, the towns of Dantzic and Thorn, the Altmark, Magdeburg, Halberstadt, and several other towns with the surrounding districts, Cleve, Münster, and Wesel, were reunited with Prussia, who also received as new acquisitions the grand duchy of Posen, the grand duchy of Berg, Wiltzlar, Dortmund, Corvey, and considerable parts of the French departments on the left banks of the Rhine. Soon after the end of the congress of Vienna, Napoleon's return from Elba caused a new war, in which Prussia again took part, and contributed by her arms—after having suffered a severe defeat on the 16th of June at Ligny-to gain the decisive victory of Waterloo. At the second peace of Paris, Prussia obtained a farther accession of territory, by some parts of France near the Saar and the Mosel, and joined the holy alliance. A constitution founded upon the principle of a general national representation, has been promised by the king, but has not hitherto been granted.

CHAP. II.-PHYSICAL FEATURES CANALS-AGRICULTURE

MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE.

Physical Features.] THE general physical features of a country comprehending so many districts of different appearance as the Prussian monarchy are difficult to be given; we shall therefore endeavour to point out only the most general outlines here, and reserve the particulars for the topographical description of the different provinces.

The eastern part of the monarchy forms an almost uninterrupted plain, interspersed only with a few hills, which do not rise to mountains. The southern edge is bounded by the Sudetes towards Silesia; and by the Thuringian forest towards Saxony; its south-western angle is bordered by the Harz. Some branches of these mountains run into Silesia; but the country flattens so much towards the Baltic, that a part of the streams form stagnant lakes in the interior, and the coast would be everywhere exposed to the encroachments of the sea, if the shore was not protected by means of alluvial deposits, and also by artificial dykes. Through the western half of the monarchy run several chains of hills,

partly the remains of the Sylva Hercynia of Tacitus, and partly branches of the Wasgau and the Ardennes. However, all the lands on the right side of the Rhine, to the north of the Lippe, belong to the sandy plains of the north of Germany; and beyond the Rhine, the extreme mountain point is the Eifel, at the northern foot of which the plain begins again. These plains give a very uniform appearance to both parts of the monarchy; but the finest part of the monarchy, and one of the finest districts in Germany, are the banks of the Rhine from Coblenz to Cologne. The declination of the eastern part is in the E. towards the Baltic; and in the W. towards the German Ocean; that of the western part is also towards the German Ocean. The coasts of Prussia are washed only by one sea,-the Baltic, which, along a line of coast exceeding 500 miles in length, forms only two large bays, the Tanzker Wyk, on the coast of Western Prussia, and the Rüge Bodden, between the peninsula of Mönkgath and the island of Usedom; but the three large haffs, which are properly only inland lakes, stand in immediate communication with the sea, and are therefore also sometimes called bays.

Lakes and Climate.] The Prussian States have an abundance of inland lakes. Eastern Prussia has about 300; Western Prussia about 100, and Brandenburg 679. The climate is on the whole temperate and healthy, although very much modified by the different situations of the provinces. The lands along the coast are cold, and sometimes damp and variable, whilst the inland provinces enjoy a very fine climate, which also causes a great difference in their productions.

Canals.] Among other obstructions to agriculture and commerce in the Prussian dominions, was the difficulty of conveying materials and merchandize to different parts of the interior. In order to remove these, and to facilitate trade, the great Frederic improved the navigation of several rivers, and caused several canals to be formed, of which we have the following account from Busching. The canal of Plauen shortens the water-passage between Berlin and Magdeburg about one half, and was finished under the direction of a French engineer, named Mahestre. It begins near Parie, on the Elbe; intersects the Elbe and Stremme, having three sluices in it, which check the fall of the water out of the Elbe into the Havel, which is 21 feet in height, and promotes its passage; after which it passes on by Plauen, into the Havel. This canal is 8,655 perches, or above 20 British miles in length; being 22 feet wide at the bottom, and 26 feet wide at the surface of the water, and in some places between 40 and 50 feet broad, with bridges laid over it at nine different places. Another canal joins the Spree and the Oder. This was ordered to be cut by the great elector Frederic William, and was completed between the years 1662 and 1668. It issues out of the Spree into a lake near Muhlrose in the Middle Mark, and thence runs partly along the Schlubbe, partly through it, and into the Oder, being 13 British miles in length; 5 Rheinland perches broad, and 6 feet deep.Another canal joins the Havel and Oder, called the canal of Finow. It begins at Liebenwald, on the Havel; passes thence into the river Finow; and below Lower Finow, runs into the Oder. Frederic II. caused it to be completed between the years 1743 and 1746, and on it are thirteen sluices.-The Oder canal runs out of the Oder, from the village of Gustebiese, to the prefecturate of Nuenhagen, falling again, near Wutzo, or about four and a half British miles below Odersberg, into the Oder. This canal was opened in 1755.--Another canal, denominated the canal

of Bromberg, in Prussian Poland, joins the Vistula and Notez or Netze. This canal was ordered to be made by the great Frederic, when, by the first partition, he had obtained possession of Western Prussia, and part of Great Poland. It is 20 British miles in length; and by means of this junction, a person can sail up the Oder to its junction with the Warta at Kustrin; up the Warta till its junction with the Netze; up this river to the canal of Bromberg, and thence to the Vistula; and down this last river to Dantzic-an inland navigation of at least 500 British miles. If we include the canals joining the Elbe and Oder, it will add 200 British miles more to the extent of inland navigation.

State of Agriculture.] Before the year 1807, the landed estates in East Prussia, West Prussia, and Pomerania, were in the possession of large proprietors, and were worked, without the intervention of any tenantry, by a class of persons but little removed from the condition of slavery, who in many cases had a hereditary right to some use of the land: such as to grow one crop of corn according to a prescribed course, while the lord had the right of pasture between the crops. These peasants, who were originally attached to the soil, and who could not be removed at the pleasure of the proprietor, have been since converted into freemen and freeholders, and compensations given to them in land or money for their former claims upon the lord of the territory. This better order of things, however, has not yet produced all its natural effect on the agriculture of the country. With very few exceptions, all the land is still in the occupation of the proprietors, and such a thing as rent is nearly altogether unknown. The domains of the Crown, however, are differently circumstanced from other land, and are let to farmers; and, in as far as these, which constitute about one-sixth part of the whole province of West Prussia, are concerned, the rent, which is excessively ill paid, appears to average only about 1s. 3d. per acre. The value of estates accordingly is also very low, and of average arable land the highest price may be stated as somewhat less than 40s. and the lowest as not quite 15s. per acre. Even these moderate rates, however, refer only to the maritime provinces of Prussia; in the other parts of the kingdom, land is still greatly more depreciated. As to the stock of cattle in these countries, the number of horses does not seem to be 4d, nor that of cows and sheep 4th of what would be required in England for the same extent of land; and it is to this deficiency in the sources of manure that the wretched condition of agriculture is in a great measure to be attributed. The land in cultivation, indeed, is in such a state of poverty that much of it would not yield, on an average, more than 3 times the seed put into it. The general course of cultivation is to fallow every third year, by ploughing three times when designed for rye, or five times if intended for wheat, and allowing the land to rest without any crop during the year, from one autumn to the next. Of late years the proportion of rye to wheat has been rapidly increasing. Rye is fast becoming a favourite, even with the higher ranks, both in Germany and Poland, and wheat, even where it can be grown, is now deemed the least profitable of the two crops by many of the farmers. Barley and oats are sown in the spring which follows the harvesting the wheat and rye, and these complete the course, which is again followed by a whole year's fallow. Even on the best managed properties, the quantity of wheat sown was very insignificant. One nobleman, who farmed his estate of 26,000 acres, of which 2-3ds was tillage, and the rest woodland, Mr. Jacob reports,

grew but a few acres of wheat, and of late had sold no corn of any kind. On this estate there is a flock of 15,000 Merino sheep, yielding on an average 24 pounds of fine wool, the annual sales of which amount to one half more than the value of the carcases. Instead of selling, the proprietor finds it more profitable to buy corn. On the same estate there were about 1000 acres planted with potatoes, the chief part of which were used in the distillery, which seems an indispensable adjunct to every well-managed farm. Sugar and treacle are made from potatoes, as well as ardent spirits. In the mean time, in spite of the disposition to increase pasturage, few of the proprietors have any capital to buy either sheep or other stock, the most of the returns from the estate going to pay the interest of the money that has been borrowed on it. Formerly the majority of the estates were nearly inalienable; but the necessity of the case has lately compelled the government to allow to the holders the power of sale. Nearly all the land in the country is in fact encumbered with mortgages, the sums borrowed being, in many cases, greatly beyond the present value of the property. The new proprietors, who have been raised to that condition by the abolition of the ancient feudal tenures, generally contrive, when tolerably industrious, to procure, by their own labour, potatoes and a little bread-corn, as well as provisions for their two oxen. They all grow a small patch of flax, and some keep five or six sheep. The flax and wool supply the clothing of the family; the fat of the sheep, soap and candles. Meat of any kind they can rarely afford; and seldom a cow to supply them with milk. Among the day-labourers, the rate of wages averages about 5d. a day; and they are understood, upon the whole, to be better off than the above-mentioned freehold proprietors. The poor, who were formerly supported by the several feudal lords, are now maintained by certain local funds; but no regular assessment has as yet been introduced. Private charity is still the principal source on which they depend. In general the soil is so light that it may be easily ploughed with two oxen. The ploughs are ill-constructed, with very little iron in them. The harrows are made of wood, without any iron. The waggons are mere planks, laid on the frame loose. The harness of the cattle is formed of ropes, without leather. The use of the roller is scarcely known, the clods being broken by the hand with wooden mallets. The value of live stock is very low; the best Merino sheep selling at 6s. or 6s. 8d. per head, and cows from 30s. to 65s. The price of hay varies from 14s. to 20s. per ton. The whole taxes in Prussia amount to about 10s. per head, which, however—the value of money being double what it is with us-is here considered a very oppressive burthen. Of these taxes, the grund steuer, or land-tax alone, falls wholly on the land. It averages in the three maritime provinces somewhat less than 3d. per acre. The military service is extremely onerous, as every young man is compelled to serve three years, from the age of 20 to 25 as a soldier. The working class of the inhabitants live very wretchedly, in houses of mud, warmed by close stoves, but forming no protection from the inclemency of the weather. There is not above a thirtieth part of the whole class who can be considered as better off. Much of their misery results from the inability of the proprietors to dispose of their surplus produce in consequence of the English corn laws. Manufactures.] Mr. Jacob states, that the parts of Prussia through which his route lay have scarcely any manufactures :-but if in passing through the provinces on the Rhine, he had left the high road and pene

trated into the neighbourhood of Elberfeld, Barmen, Solingen, Aix-laChapelle, Glaybach, and Rheidt; or if in passing through Silesia and Saxony, he had visited the districts of Zittaw, Chemnitz, Gorlitz, &c. he would probably have been struck by the progress of manufactures in these quarters, essentially aided as it has been by the great cheapness of provisions which has followed the peace, and the want of export for their surplus production of grain. Not only are most of the raw productions of the country manufactured in it, but some foreign materials are also consumed; and although Prussia, taken as a whole, cannot be considered as a manufacturing country, yet the government has always done much to encourage and advance the national industry, and it is only to be regretted that this wish should have led to the mistaken policy of adopting compulsory measures, and imposing restraints upon free commerce by heavy excises and customs. Prussia, by the acquisition of the Rhenish provinces, obtained several branches of manufactures, which it did not before possess. The principal articles of Prussian manufacture, are linen, woollen ware, iron, cotton, silk, leather, copper, tobacco, and china. The manufacture of china in Berlin, is considered as the finest in Europe, and is particularly distinguished by elegant forms and fine painting. The trades people are generally formed into corporations.

Commerce and Monies.] The advantageous situation of Prussia between the manufacturing districts of the west of Europe, and those of the north and east, the extent of its navigable coast, and the number of navigable rivers and canals, seem to have destined it for a very extensive commerce. The commerce is really important as regards its own productions, but the maritime commerce of Prussia is by no means so extensive as it might be made, in consequence of the fetters which the severe custom-house system imposes upon it. Prussia might command almost the whole commerce of Germany, if she would lower her customs; but as it is, the interior commerce is by far the most important, and much has been done by government to facilitate the intercourse between all parts of the monarchy, although there are still some districts in which the roads are in a very bad state. Berlin may be considered as the centre of interior commerce, and next to it Breslaw. A great part of the transport is carried on by the navigable rivers and canals. On the Oder alone there are more than 1,400 larger or smaller vessels; on the Vistula there are above 800; on the Elbe about 400; only 16 on the Weser, and more than 300 on the Rhine, without counting the smaller boats. The commerce with Russia and Austria exhibits a balance against Prussia; with part of Poland and Saxony, the contrary is the case; and with the rest of the German States it stands almost equal. With France the balance is in favour of Prussia; and with the Netherlands it is much against it. The maritime commerce is carried on with Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, and North America. The articles of exportation are corn, yarn, linen, woollen ware, manufactured iron, timber, carpenters' work, fuel, amber, Prussian blue, Eau de Cologne, Dantzic liquors, wines, hams, smoked geese, Westphalian pumpernickel, starch, and refined sugar. articles of importation are raw sugar, French and Hungarian wines, cotton, silk, brandy, colonial ware, spices, oil, horses, cattle, gold, and all kinds of silk and haberdashery ware. The administrations of the different provinces have also the inspection of the commerce. The bank of Berlin has counting-houses in the important provincial towns; in

The