possessed the south of Transylvania, on the borders of Wallachia. The modern inhabitants of Transylvania are thus a very mixed race, the descendants of various and distinct tribes. But the principal nations who inhabit Transylvania, are the Szeckhelyi, or Scythuli, corruptly termed Siculi; the Madschars, or modern Hungarians; the Vlackes; and the Saxons. Liechtenstern gives the following enumeration of the different races :-Magyars and Szeckhely, 460,000; Saxons in the south 420,000; Vlackes, or Wallachians, 800,000; Zigeunes, or Gypsies, 70,000; Slavi, or Slavonians, 7000; Armenians, 5,500; Jews, 2,500; Italians, 2,000. The Szeckhelyi, or descendants of the ancient Hunns, use a dialect of the Hunno-Scythic language, an alphabet of which has been given to the public by the learned Matthew Belius; and it is believed, that several manuscripts written in the Hunno-Scythian character, and of great antiquity, are still preserved in Transylvania. The Hungarians use the same language with their brethren to the W. and N. of Transyl vania; which is also spoken by the Bulgarians and Armenians. The Saxons speak the same language with the inhabitants of Lower Saxony, but so intermixed with Hungarian as makes it seem quite different from the German or High Dutch; but in the district of Burckland, on the frontiers of Wallachia, where the Saxons live unmixed with any other races, their peculiar language is spoken with the greatest purity. The language of the Vlaki-which is also spoken by the Greeks-is a dialect of the Slavonic, mixed with a great deal of bad Latin.

Modern History.] Transylvania, from its conquest by Stephen, king of Hungary, in 1004, continued subject to that kingdom, and was governed by Waivodes.5 After the fatal battle of 1526, John Scepus, Waivode of Transylvania, married the widow of the unfortunate Louis, and became king of Hungary, under the protection of Solyman the magnificent, holding it and Transylvania as fiefs of the Porte. Upon the death of king John, Hungary was converted into a separate kingdom, by Sultan Solyman, and Transylvania was given to his widow and her infant son; but he dying, Transylvania was divided between two rival factions, one of which was supported by the house of Austria, and the other by the Ottoman Porte, in consequence of which, the country was a scene of intestine warfare, for many years. The papal party were supported by the power of Austria; and the Protestant party, headed by the celebrated Botskay, were aided by the Turks; when the successes of the latter obliged the court of Vienna, in 1606, to acknowledge the independence of Transylvania. Botskay was succeeded by Bethlem Gabor, a determined enemy of the Catholics and house of Austria, and a firm friend of the Porte, whose vassal he became in order to secure himself against the Catholic faction. He was succeeded by his son Stephen, between whom, and the family of Ragotski, a contest arose for the principality, in which the Ragotski family finally prevailed. Upon the death of Ragotski, a civil war again commenced; but the balance turned in favour of Michael Abaffi, who, aided by the Turks; under the

Bogdania, in the Slavonic language. Thus the Moldavians and Wallachians are the descendants of the Transylvanian Vlaki. The Wallachians are called by the modern Greeks, Mauro- Vlakhi; and by the Turks, Kara-Iflak, or vulgarly, Kara-Vlakh, which, in both languages, signifies the Black Wallachians.' The Moldavians are called by the Greeks, Leuco- Vlaki, and by the Turks, Akh- Vlakhi, which signifies the White Wallachians.'

The term is Slavonic, signifying the commander of an army; but, by the Poles, it is given to governors of provinces.

famous vizir Cuprogli, completely defeated the imperialists, at the battle of Clausenburg, and drove them out of Transylvania. Abaffi continued in possession of Transylvania, as a vassal of the Porte, till his death, in 1690. At his death, the family of Ragotski contended for the principality with the victorious Austrians-who had by this time reconquered Turkish Hungary-but without success. Tekeli, who had married Abaffi's widow and inherited his claims, was equally unsuccessful, and was compelled to live as an exile for the remainder of his life in the Turkish dominions, where he died at Nicomedia. Transylvania was ceded to the Austrians, by the treaty of Carlowitz, in 1699, and has ever since continued subject to the house of Austria, though an attempt was made, in 1738, by the Ragotski family, to recover their influence under the protection of the Porte, but the matter was settled by the peace of Belgrade, in 1740.

Physical Features, &c.] In figure Transylvania resembles Bohemia, being nearly oval; and like it surrounded on all sides by ranges of lofty mountains, some of which are covered with perpetual snow. Though resembling Bohemia in these respects, it differs in this: that while the latter resembles a vast basin, or concavity, the former is woody and mountainous throughout, the surrounding ranges sending out lateral ridges or branches from different points of their immense circumference, which terminate towards the centre of the country in hills covered with vineyards, and rich in minerals. Owing to its superior elevation, its climate is more temperate and wholesome than that of Hungary; but the water in many places is strongly impregnated with minerals, and apt to produce colics and other dangerous distempers; even the very wine produced in the country is affected in a similar way. Environed and intersected by mountains, it contains many delightful vallies, watered by innumerable streams, which, descending from the mountains on the N.E. and E., disembogue themselves into the Marosch and Alauta, the two main rivers of the country; the former of which-the Marisos of Straborunning S.W. through the whole of Transylvania, enters Hungary and joins the Theiss; and the latter, after watering the eastern division of the country, runs S. through Wallachia to the Danube. There are

several lakes and marshes, among the latter of which the Hellmorass, near Kovaszna, is remarkable on account of its unfathomable depth. Transylvania produces a superabundance of excellent wheat, and its rich pastures feed vast numbers of black cattle. The country contains many extensive forests, inhabited by buffaloes, bears, lynxes, elks, wild asses, wild boars, chamois, ermines, and beavers.

Industry.] Agriculture, in all its branches, is the principal occupation of the inhabitants of this country; but it is still carried on in a very primitive manner as in Hungary. Nevertheless, the fertile soil yields more than supplies the home-consumption. The vine, too, is grown on a very extensive scale, and, under good management, a considerable quantity of wine might be produced for exportation. The quantity of salt in this country is enormous; the whole of Europe might be provided with salt from hence. There are no manufactures of any importance in Transylvania. Commerce.] The commerce of the country is in the hands of the Greeks and Armenians; and the importation probably exceeds the exportation. The transit from the Armenian provinces to Hungary and Germany is considerable.

Mines of Transylvania.] The mines of Transylvania and the Bannat

of Temeswar, are very numerous and valuable. Those of Najiag, 12 British miles to the N.E. of Deva, were discovered by a Wallachian peasant, who said that he had observed a light shining in the evening over the spot. This flame is exactly similar to that which appears in the neighbourhood of Pietra Mala, in Tuscany, and in the opinion of miners, is an indication of gold in the bowels of the earth. The mines, indicated by the above phenomenon, produce the gray gold ore, or that precious metal mixed with antimony, arsenic, lead, iron, and sometimes with manganese and zinc. They are the richest in all Transylvania, and are conducted with the greatest care. The profits of the Najiag mine, according to Dr. Clarke's information, amounted, during the space of 20 years, to 4,000,000 florins, or £25,000 sterling, annually; and the mine is still as productive as when first discovered. At Ofenbanya, 25 British miles to the north of Carlsburg, is found the white gold ore, which also occurs in the hills of Fatzebay, in the same quarter. To the west of Carlesburg, the country presents numerous gold mines, near Zalathna. In the north of Transylvania, are the gold mines of Kapnick, Rodna, Felsobanya, and others. Mr. Esmarck, who visited Hungary in 1796, also notices the gold mines of Virospatack, Kirnick, and Boitza, but some are exhausted. Oraviza, in the Bannat of Temeswar, situated on the west of a chain of mountains, consisting of micaceous schistus, granite, and metallic rock, or the saxum metalliferum of Baron de Born, is the chief mining town in that quarter. Towards the south of Oraviza, are found mines of copper; and gold and silver mines at Dognaska, to the south. At Ohlapan, near Zalathna, the finest gold in Transylvania is found, mixed with gravel and sand. It is supposed that Hungary and Transylvania together produce, besides gold and silver, annually, 34,000 lbs. of copper; also iron, quicksilver, and other minerals.

Religion and State of Education.] According to Hassel, there are about 380,000 Catholics and United Greeks, 917,000 Greeks, or Eastern Church, 210,000 Calvinists, 168,000 Lutherans, 45,000 Unitarians, 5,500 Armenians, and 2,500 Jews, in Transylvania; and about 70,000 Gipsies, who cannot with propriety be placed under any religious denomination. The Magyars and Saxons have the best schools; those of the Vlaki are utterly miserable. The whole of Transylvania has only two booksellers' shops, seven printing-offices, and twelve papermills.

Government. The constitution of Transylvania is a limited monarchy, in many respects resembling that of Hungary; but the prince enjoys here more extensive rights, and his influence in the Diet is greater. The executive power belongs entirely to him, and no law can be enacted without his sanction. The deputies to the assembly of the States are elected by the three principal nations, among whom the Magyars hold the first place. The magnats consist of the great officers of State, the counts, and barons. The gentry are Magyars and Szeckhelyi, but the royal towns Saxons only. The principality is governed in the name of the prince and nobility, by the Diet, the officers of State, the royal government, the exchequer, the assembly of the nobles, the tribunals of justice, and the magistrates of the Szeckhelyi and Saxons. The Diets meet upon summons from the prince, at Hermanstadt. The revenues arise from the contributions, customs, metals, minerals, rock-salt, royal demesnes, escheats, and confiscations, and are levied by the treasury. They amount to from four to five million of florins.

Topography.] This country is divided into three large districts, which are again subdivided into counties.

1st, The Land of the Hungarians The surface of this district, or Magyars. Jaccording to Liechtenstern, amounts to 425 German square miles, and the population is about 1,200,000. Klausenburg or Kolosvar, the capital of Transylvania, on the Szamos, contains 20,000 inhabitants. The gold mine of Szekerembe, in this district, produced from 1747 to 1812, 7,000,000 of florins.

2d, The Land of the Szeckhelyi.] This is a district of about 222.34 German square miles, with 200,000 inhabitants. Maros Vasarhely, or Neumarkt on the Maros, containing 9,500 inhabitants, has several fine buildings, among others the palace of Tekeli, with a library of 60,000 volumes.-Udvarhely contains 6000 inhabitants.

3d, The Land of the Saxons.] This district does not exceed 194.96 German square miles, with a population of above 400,000 souls. The chief town is Hermannstadt, with 18,000 inhabitants.-Kronstadt contains 25,000 inhabitants, and conducts an extensive commerce.-Reps, with 2,200 inhabitants, has several salt and sulphur springs.

III. THE MILITARY FRONTIERS.

Name and Boundaries.] This country has its name from its situation on the frontiers on the S.E. side of the empire, and from its military constitution. The name first occurs in the 16th century, when king Ferdinand granted lands to a number of Turkish emigrants on the boundaries of Croatia, taking them bound in return to defend these limits. The complete formation, however, of the frontiers of Karlstadt, Warasdin, and the Bannat, took place in the course of the 17th century; the Slavonian frontier was formed in 1702; and that of Transylvania between 1764 and 1766. These different boundaries run in an uninterrupted chain along the Turkish frontier from the Adriatic to Galicia, and surround the provinces of Croatia, Slavonia, Hungary, and Transylvania. They are themselves bounded by the canal of Morlach, the kingdom of Illyria, Croatia, Hungary, Transylvania, Galicia, Moldavia, Wallachia, parts of Romelia and Bosnia, and Dalmatia. The superficial extent is 856 German, or 18,405 British square miles.

Physical Features.] The face of so extensive a tract of land must, of course, differ much; but in general presents the same features as those countries to which its different districts formerly belonged. Thus the Croatian frontier is like the surface of Croatia, while the Transylvanian is mountainous. The principal mountains on the different frontiers are, -1st, The Crapacks on the Transylvanian frontier; 2d, The mountains of the Bannat, which divide Transylvania and Wallachia from the frontier of the Bannat, and in which occurs the fearful cave of Piatra Kupeseguli, also called the cave of Veterani; 3d, The Upper and Under Klissura, a chain which runs from the Crapacks to the Danube; 4th, The Julian Alps; and 5th, The Karnian Alps belonging to the chains running between the Saave and Drave. The higher ridges of the Military frontier lie partly on the E. and partly on the W., leaving the plains of Slavonia in the middle between them. A small part of the frontiers borders upon the Adriatic. In this district there occur several streams, such as are found in steppes, which seem to sink into the ground, and probably reach the sea by subterranean channels. Lakes are found in the district of Karlstadt only; the most remarkable are the eight lakes of Plittwitz and the lake formed

by the Gacska. In the lower districts of the Slavonian and western frontier of the Bannat there are extensive morasses.

Soil and Climate.] The soil is very various in quality. In the mountainous countries it is very poor, and fit only for pasture; but on the Slavonian frontier and the plains of Warasdin, and in the Bannat there is some excellent arable land. The calcareous soil along the sea-coast is very barren, and there is a large district of land in the Bannat, of which one-third is quicksand unsusceptible of any culture. The climate is also very different in different districts. Thus within three and a half degrees of latitude, there occurs a rough unpleasant climate at both extremities. On the S.W. the cold dry Borra, and the warm and damp, but violent Zugo reign alternately; while on the coast the fierce Tramontane, so much dreaded by sailors, ploughs up the ocean; and under the united influence of these three destructive winds all vegetation dies away. In the N.E. the air is still colder. In the immediate neighbourhood of the mountains, however, the climate is much milder; and in the valleys of the S.W. there is an Italian and Grecian sky. The plains in the Bannat and in Slavonia have the most equable and warm climate; but are not very healthy on account of the number of marshes.

Productions.] The productions of the Military frontiers are horses of Hungarian breed, not tall, but fine and swift; cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and game. The Julian Alps and Crapacks also are inhabited by wolves. Corn, Turkish corn, melons, cucumbers, fruit, wine, wood, tobacco, madder, and liquorice, are among the vegetable productions, and agriculture is the exclusive employment of the inhabitants. The commerce of the Military frontiers is merged in that of Transylvania and Hungary. The exportations consist in the productions of the country.

Population, &c.] Except on the Transylvanian frontier the Slavonians form by far the largest proportion of the inhabitants. They are reckoned to amount to above 800,000. There are also 122,000 Wlaches 80,000 Magyars and Szeckhelyi; 9000 Germans; 1,500 Klementins ; and about 1,500 Greeks, Jews, and Gipsies. German is the official language, and that of the higher classes of society. The members of the Greek church amount to 485,000; those of the Catholic to 378,000; the United Greeks exceed 44,000, and the Protestants and Unitarians amount to 40,000. There is no established religion. The inhabitants of the frontiers are distinguished for quickness of conception; but they are still much behind those of the other Hungarian States in education, though government has done a good deal of late for the establishment of schools.

Government, &c.] There is no nobility or any privileged class among the inhabitants of the frontiers,-which yet form a complete military State, having many points of resemblance to the feudal constitutions of the middle ages. The frontier government was originally created to protect the empire, of which it forms a part, against the invasion of barbarians, and in later times to form a cordon sanitaire against the plague. All landed property in this vast district is held by a kind of military fief on condition of military service in peace and war. Only such boys as are not fit for military service are allowed to engage in any other occupation than that of bearing arms; those who are to follow a learned profession, or to enter the church, are likewise determined by the law. A singular social institution exists in this country: several families unite in what is called a house or household, which forms a kind