scattered there is at least one in every parish. The consequence of this ample provision for the instruction of youth has been, that among 1000 people of both sexes in Germany, there is scarcely one who is not able to read, and scarcely 50 who are not able to write. Schools of art have been introduced into several provinces. The town-schools are divided into elementary and higher ones; in the latter the boys are prepared for the gymnasiums. The schools for learned education are divided into gymnasiums, in which boys are taught in classes; pedagogical institutions in which all the pupils are boarded, and placed under the special care of the professors; lyceums, or academical gymnasiums, in which instruction is given, as in universities, by regular lectures; and universities, which have the right to graduate, and in which the highest branches of education are taught. There are above 20 universities in the German States, among which Göttingen, Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg, and Munich, are the most renowned, and of which we shall give particulars in the topography. There are a great number of particular establishments, such as military academies, commercial schools, mining schools, medicinal and veterinary schools, blind and deaf, and dumb institutions, polytechnic schools, and seminaries for the education of clergymen and schoolmasters.

Germany has a number of learned societies, as the royal academies of science at Berlin and Munich; the society of German naturalists and physicians, formed on the model of the celebrated Swiss society of naturalists; and a number of societies and associations for special pur poses. There are no fewer than 31 public libraries in Germany, all of which contain at least 20,000 volumes, and some of them a vastly greater number. To this immense mass of intellectual food must be added the many town and school-libraries, of which some are as extensive as those of the universities; so that it may be calculated that there are in Germany at least four millions of printed books open to the daily inspection of the public. Besides this, almost all the large private collections are accessible to the public. Great means for the general diffusion of literature are also afforded by the numerous circulating libraries and reading associations, of which every town of moderate, and many of very small size, possess at least one. The largest establishment of this kind is that of Beygang in Leipsic, which contains 70,000 volumes. The picture-galleries at Vienna, Dresden, and Munich, may be numbered among the most excellent in Europe; there are several other very good ones, as well as private collections. Among the cabinets of antiquities and medals, those at Munich and Vienna are the richest.

CHAP. VI. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.

HAVING considered Germany hitherto as a connected whole, we are under the necessity of saying something of its government, and of the present political bonds that knit together the component parts of the body politic. Although there is now, properly speaking, no German empire, nor German emperor, nor that intricate political constitution significantly termed by a German author, a chaos maintained by Providence,' yet some shadow of the old relationships still exists, under the name of the German Confederation. In our historical sketch, we have seen that the empire of Germany, for many ages, was a complete living image of the feudal system, in the centre of civilized Europe. It was a

vast assemblage of vassal population under the dominion of a host of petty but confederated feudal lords, bearing the appellation of electors, dukes, margraves, palgraves, counts, and barons, all of whom were possessed of independent territorial jurisdiction, and the absolute power of life and death over their respective vassals, but were nominally subject to an elective head, called an emperor, who frequently enjoyed dignity without power, and splendour without influence, as several of the nominally dependant princes were often possessed of much more real power and influence, derived from population and territory, than the head of the political body, who was sometimes but a mere phantom.

The chief prerogatives of the German emperor were the power of assembling the Diet, in which he presided, either personally or by deputy, and ratified its resolutions. He was the supreme judge, in whose name justice was administered in the high imperial courts; and had a power of exempting the subordinate States from the jurisdiction of the imperial tribunals, by granting them the privilege of not appealing. He was the fountain of honour; but the Germans were extremely tenacious of the rights appertaining to property, and their own material interests. The emperor could not levy taxes, make war, or alter any law of the empire, without the consent of the Diet, which was considered as the supreme power of the empire. His revenues in the capacity of emperor were but trifling, not exceeding 20,000 florins annually. But in time of war, or great emergencies, the Diet granted him extraordinary aids, called Roman months, valued at 50,000 florins each.

The Diet was composed of the emperor and the immediate States of the empire. It exercised all the powers of sovereignty, as far as concerned the interests of the whole confederate body; it levied taxes, it made laws, declared war and made peace, and concluded treaties by which the whole empire was bound. It was divided into three colleges, which deliberated separately, and decided by majority of votes; namely, that of electors, that of princes, and that of the imperial cities. Before any proposition could be passed into a law, the approbation of the three colleges was necessary: it was then called a resolution of the empire. It was afterwards presented to the emperor for his confirmation, which, if obtained, constituted it an act or statute of the empire, and with the previous sanctions, gave it the force of a law. There were two supreme courts of judicature, which had concurrent jurisdiction in the German empire, namely, the imperial chamber, and the aulic council. The first, which met at Wetzlaer, consisted of a judge, and two presidents, nominated by the emperor; and 27 counsellors, or assessors, appointed by the States. The authority of the aulic council originally extended to the Austrian States only; but its influence was gradually augmented, in proportion to that of the Austrian family, so that at length it claimed many of the prerogatives of the imperial chamber and the Diet. Its members were composed partly of Protestants and partly of Catholics, and its sittings were held at Vienna, as those of the Diet were held at Ratisbon. The different States were obliged to furnish their respective quotas of men and money, to constitute and support a standing army, called 'the army of the empire;' the number generally amounted to 28,000 infantry, and 12,000 cavalry, and the expense to 1,500,000 florins annually. The spiritual princes, were supposed to be able to support an army of 75,000 men, and the secular princes one of 380,000 men, making a total of 455,000 men, as the military strength of Germany: which, had these

States been united in the during bonds of reciprocal good will, would have proved a complete overmatch for the power of France. But the Reformation, and the mutual jealousies arising from difference of religious sentiment, considerably weakened the political power of Germany; and the German Protestants were accustomed, ever since the days of Richelieu, to look up to France as their firmest bulwark against the power of Austria. Each of the 9 circles into which Germany was divided by Maximilian, in 1500, had its separate political government, under the superintendence of one or two directors, who summoned the States of the circle to meet, laid the cause of the meeting before them, and gave the necessary orders for the public welfare and general administration. The 9 electors had each a particular office in the imperial court, besides having the sole election of the emperor. The elector of Mentz was high chancellor of the empire in Germany. The elector of Treves was high chancellor of the empire, when in France; and the elector of Cologne was high chancellor of the empire, when in Italy. The king of Bohemia was cup-bearer; the elector of Bavaria, grand-sewer, or server at the feast of the coronation; the elector of Saxony, grand marshal of the empire, and count Pappenheim his deputy; the elector of Brandenburg, (now king of Prussia,) grand chamberlain; the elector Palatine, grand-steward; and the elector of Hanover, (king of Great Britain,) claimed the post of arch-treasurer. The emperor was obliged to seek the advice of these electors, before he called a Diet; and during a vacancy of the imperial throne, the electors of Bavaria and Saxony exercised the imperial jurisdiction, the former over the southern, and the latter over the northern circles. The emperors were generally chosen at Frankfort on the Maine. The title of king of the Romans was always given to those who were to succeed to the empire; but the emperors of the Austrian line generally procured the title for their eldest sons, and thus made sure of the succession to the imperial dignity in their own family.-We shall now give as perspicuous an account of the present political constitution of Germany, as our limits, and the nature of the subject will allow; without taking any notice of the Rhenish Confederation, which fell with the fortunes of its creator, Napoleon Bonaparte. The foundation of the present political arrangement was laid in the congress of Vienna, on the 9th of June 1814, and contains the following articles:

Germanic Confederation.] Art. 1st. The sovereign princes and free towns of Germany, establish among themselves a perpetual confederation, which shall bear the name of the Germanic Confederation. 2d. The object of the confederation is the maintenance of the external and internal security of Germany, the independence and inviolability of the confederated States. 3d. The members of the confederation, as such, are all equal in right, and equally obliged to support the union. 4th. The affairs of the confederation shall be confided to a federative diet, in which all the members shall vote by their plenipotentiaries, either individually or collectively, in the following manner, without prejudice to their rank, thus-1. Austria, one vote; 2. Prussia, one vote; 3. Bavaria, one vote; 4. Saxony, one vote; 5. Hanover, one vote; 6. Wirtemberg, one vote; 7. Baden, one vote; 8. Electoral Hessen, one vote; 9. Grand Duchy of Hessen, one vote; 10. Denmark for Holstein, one vote; 11. Netherlands for Luxemburg, one vote; 12. Grand Ducal, and Ducal Houses of Saxony, one vote; 13. Brunswick and Nassau, one vote; 14. Mecklenburg Schwerin, and Strelitz, one vote; 15. Holstein, Oldenburg, and Schwartz

burg, one vote; 16. Hohenzollern, Lichtenstein, Reuss, Schaumburg Lippe, and Waldeck, one vote; 17. The free towns of Lubec, Frankfort, Bremen, and Hamburg, one vote. Total seventeen votes. 5th. Austria shall preside at the federative diet. Every State of the confederation shall have the right of making propositions, and the presiding State is bound to bring them under consideration within a space of time to be fixed. 6th. When fundamental laws shall be enacted, or changes made in the fundamental laws of the confederation, &c. the Diet shall form itself into a general assembly; and in that case the distribution of votes shall be as follows, calculated according to the respective extent of the individual States; Austria, four votes; Prussia, four; Bavaria, four; Saxony, four; Hanover, four; Wirtemberg, four; Baden, three; electoral Hesse, three; Grand Duchy of Hesse, three; Holstein, three; Luxemburg, three; Brunswick, two; Mecklenburg-Schwerin, two; Nassau, two; Saxe-Weimar, one; Saxe-Gotha, one; Saxe-Coburg, one; SaxeMeiningen, one; Saxe-Hildburghausen, one; Mecklenburg-Strelitz, one; Holstein-Oldenburg, one; Anhalt-Dessau, one; Anhalt-Koethen, one ; Anhalt-Bernburg, one; Hessen-Homburg, one; Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, one; Schwarzburg-Rodolstadt, one; Hohenzollern-Hechingen, one; Lichtenstein, one; Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, one; Waldeck, one; Reuss, elder branch, one; Reuss, younger branch, one; Schaumburg Lippe, one; Lippe, one; the four free towns, one each. In all, 70 votes. 7th. The question, whether an affair shall be discussed by the general assembly, shall be decided in the ordinary assembly, or federative diet, by the plurality of votes. The plurality of votes shall be the rule in both assemblies, with this difference, that in the ordinary assembly, an absolute plurality shall suffice, while in the other, two-thirds shall be necessary. The Diet is permanent, but may adjourn from time to time. 8th. After drawing up organic laws, the Diet shall deliberate on the manner of fixing the order of voting in a permanent manner. 9th. The Diet shall sit at Frankfort on the Mayne. 10th. The first object of the Diet shall be the framing fundamental laws for the confederation, and organical institutions relative to its external, military, and internal relations. 11th. The States of the confederation engage to defend each other upon an attack. When war is begun, no member can enter on separate negotiation. The members of the confederation, reserving to themselves the right of forming alliances, oblige themselves to contract no engagements contrary to the security of the confederation. The confederated States engage not to make war on each other on any pretext, but to submit their differences to the Diet. The fullest religious toleration is secured to the citizens of every State.

CHAP. VII.-THE GERMAN STATES OF AUSTRIA.

HAVING thus presented our readers with a view of Germany as a whole, without any exclusive reference to the particular States of which it is composed, we now proceed, in conformity to the proposed plan, to give a geographical description of the German sovereignties, beginning with the Austrian States, as the first in point of dignity, extent, population, and political importance. But we must premise, that the German dominions of the house of Austria, constitute only one-third of its territories, and comprise nearly the same proportion of the whole population

of what is denominated the empire of Austria. This empire may be considered as divided into four chief divisions, corresponding to the four principal nations composing its population: namely, 1st, its German States; 2d, its Italian States; 3d, its Galician States; and 4th, its Hungarian States, Under the geography of Germany, we can of course only include those Austrian provinces which belong to the German confederation.

Boundaries and Divisions.] The German dominions of the emperor of Austria, are bounded on the N. by Prussia and Saxony; on the E. by Hungary and Galicia; on the S. by Austrian Italy and the Adriatic; and on the W. by the dominions of the king of Bavaria. They may be comprised under the circle of Austria, and the Bohemian States, including Moravia and Austrian Silesia. The circle of Austria, includes the following provinces : namely, the archduchy of Austria; the duchies of Styria; the kingdom of Illyria; and the Tyrol. This country has been denominated Austria, or in German Oestreich, which signifies the eastern kingdom,' for more than 800 years, as appears from an ancient grant of land, made by the emperor Otho, in 996; but how long prior to this date the appellation obtained is unknown.

I. THE ARCHDUCHY OF AUSTRIA.

The archduchy of Austria lies on both sides of the Danube; it is divided by the river Ens into Upper and Lower Austria, and is bounded by Bohemia and Moravia on the N.; Hungary on the E.; Styria on the S.; and Bavaria on the W. In former times, the lower part formed the duchy of Austria, the upper belonged to Bavaria; the former had been peopled by Franks and Rhenish tribes, the latter by Bavarians, or Bojarians; and even at this day the different races may be distinguished in the population of the country.

Physical Features.] One-third of the superficies of this country, which extends to about 15,230 square miles, is made up of mountains, forests, lakes, and pasture; the other two-thirds consist of meadows, corn-fields, vineyards, and the sites of towns, and villages. The soil of Upper Austria -especially on the banks of the Danube, and of the larger streams that run into that river is either a deep clayey loam, or a deposition of schistose andcalcareous rocks which are hurried down by the torrents from the mountains. Higher up, the soil is lighter and thinner, but well adapted to corn and grass husbandry. The climate is here too precarious and boisterous for the cultivation of the vine. The surface of all Austria is a gradual slope, from the southern mountains and northern hills, towards the Danube, which flows through the heart of the country, and receives every stream that pervades it. These rivers run into their majestic receptacle, nearly at right angles from both sides, like ribs into the keel of a ship. The general surface indeed of Austria greatly resembles the inside frame of a ship,-supposing the ribs to descend gradually and gently, and to be much less straight at a distance from the keel than near to it. Accordingly, the traveller who follows the course of the Danube, can see more of the country on each hand, whether ascending or descending the river, than he can from the banks of any stream of any other region with which we are acquainted. This declivity-which is uniform and gradual for many leagues on each bank-greatly facilitates the draining of the ground, and the carriage of bulky commodities from the interior of the province to the markets and places of resort on the river.