they enjoy the rights of citizens, and, in Poland, they are even eligible to public employments.

Pagans no longer exist in Europe: not even among the Lapponians, though that nation was the last in Europe to adopt Christianity. But in the north-east corner of Europe, upon the borders of the Icy Sea, there is a whole tribe which may be called Pagans, for, besides a belief in a Supreme Being who has created all things, they pay divine honours to the Evil Spirit, and employ enchanters. These are the Samoiedes; of whom, however, many proselytes have recently been made by the exertion of Christian missionaries.

Classes of Society.] In almost every European State, we find the citizens divided into four distinct classes. The first is that of the nobility, which exists in every State, with the exception of Norway and the Turkish empire. Nobility is, in most cases, viewed in Europe as an hereditary rank; but it can be acquired by the will of the sovereign, and even, in some instances, purchased by money. The clergy form the second class of the community. The third is that of the citizens, or inhabitants of towns, which in most countries enjoys peculiar rights and privileges. The fourth and lowest class includes the peasants, and forms the mass of the population in every country.

Industry and Commerce.] With the exception of the Nogaiens, Lapponians, and Samoiedes, in Russia, who yet lead the life of herdsmen or hunters, all the nations of Europe have been permanently located for many centuries. The cultivation of the soil has therefore been carried to great perfection in this part of the earth. Husbandry is pursued with the greatest industry, in the British empire, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, some parts of Italy, Denmark, and Sweden. The agriculture of the east of England and Scotland, the Netherlands, Germany, and the northern parts of France and Italy, is most distinguished; although Russia, Hungary, and Poland, whose agriculture is not nearly so advanced, are the granaries of Europe. The rearing of cattle is in some countries pursued only in connexion with agriculture; in the mountainous districts alone it forms the principal branch of rural industry. The cultivation of fruits belongs to the temperate districts, particularly France and Germany; but the finer fruits can only be extensively reared in the southern parts of Енгоре. The manufacture of wine is most considerable in France, the south of Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Turkish empire. The finest kinds are produced in Tokay, upon the Chalk Hills of Champagne, the Gold Hills of Burgundy, the banks of the Rhine and Garonne, in Spain, the two Sicilies, the banks of the Upper Douro, and some islands of the Ægean Sea. The olive belongs to the warmer regions, particularly Apulia Atino, in the Neapolitan territory of Terra di Lavora, and Spain; the other vegetable oils are produced in the temperate part of Europe. The rearing of silk-worms is also peculiar to warmer climates, and is chiefly carried on in Lombardy. The cultivation of forests has been greatly neglected in most countries, and in many a very sensible want of wood begins to be felt, although Europe is, on the whole, well-stocked with wood.10 Fishing is peculiarly important to the coast.

10 Europe was doubtless covered with primitive forests, previous to its being populated from Asia. These forests disappeared before the gradual advance of the original Nomade tribes, from N. E. to S. W. France was pretty well cleared of forests in Ä. D. 950, though they existed a much longer time in Germany. Mountainous districts

nations of Europe, who take herrings, tunnies, anchovies, mackerels, and various other species of fish, from the surrounding seas. Hunting forms a principal occupation only to a few small tribes in Russia. Mining is conducted with great skill in England, Germany, Hungary, and Sweden. European industry is rivalled by no other part of the world, either in the diversity or the extent of its productions; although the Japanese and Chinese have cultivated some branches of art for many thousand years. Europe not only manufactures its own raw produce, but also that of almost every other region of the earth. The principal seats of European industry are Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, Germany, and Switzerland. The best woollen fabrics are made in England and France; cotton in England, Saxony, and France; linen in Germany; lace in Brabant ; silks in France; paper in Holland and Switzerland; leather in Turkey and Russia; china in Germany; earthenware in England and France; glass in Bohemia and England; hardwares in England; bijouteries in France and England; millineries in France; straw-hats in Italy; and jewellery-work in France, Germany, and England.

The internal commerce of Europe is carried on in all countries with considerable animation, and is facilitated by well-constructed high-roads and canals, which are particularly good in the British empire, the Netherlands, France, Lombardy, Prussia, and Russia. The British, French, Danes, Netherlanders, Swedes, Hanseates, Ragusans, and Hydriots, are most distinguished in navigable commerce. But no nation can in this respect be compared with Great Britain, whose fleets are in every sea, and colonies in almost every region of the earth. medium of exchange, all European States coin money. Many States likewise support a paper-currency, the imaginary value of which is maintained upon public credit. A prodigious quantity of money has been coined in Europe; but the ready money in circulation can scarcely exceed 2000 millions of florins, of which the greater part is in circulation in Germany and France.

As a

Natural Divisions.] In respect of natural position, Europe may be divided into Western and Eastern Europe. The first comprehending the Pyrenean Peninsula, the countries on the south and north of the Alps, the islands of the North Sea, and the countries of the Baltic; the latter including the countries on the north and south of the Carpathian Mountains.

Political Divisions.] In political respects, Europe is divided into the following States, viz. :—

Three EMPIRES, viz. 1. Austria; 2. Russia; 3. Turkey.

Seventeen KINGDOMS, viz. 1. Bavaria; 2. Denmark; 3. France; 4. Great Britain and Ireland; 5. Hanover; 6. Italy; 7. Naples; 8. Netherlands; 9. Portugal; 10. Prussia; 11. Saxony; 12. Sardinia; 13. Sweden and Norway; 14. Spain; 15. Wirtemberg; 16. Poland; 17. Hungary. Six GRAND DUTCHIES, viz. 1. Hessen-Darmstadt; 2. Baden; 3. Weimar; 4. Mecklenburg-Schwerin; 5. Mecklenburg-Strelitz; 6. Tuscany. One ELECTORATE viz. Hessen-Cassel.

preserve their forests longest, on account of the difficulty of transportation. The mildness of the climate in Spain and Turkey renders the destruction of the forests, for fuel, less necessary. Greater attention is paid to the growth of wood in Germany and Switzerland, than in Italy and France. Austria is covered with forests. Moravia is well-wooded; Bohemia less so. Hungary has much wood; and Transylvania possesses it in abundance. But the best wood for ship-building is furnished by Russia, Norway, and Sweden. Britain affords some noble timber, but in small quantity.

Thirteen DUTCHIES, viz. 1. Anhalt-Bernburg; 2. Anhalt-Dessau; 3. Anhalt-Köthen; 4. Brunswick; 5. Lucca; 6. Modena; 7. Nassau; 8. Oldenburg; 9. Parma; 10. Sachsen-Gotha; 11. Sachsen-Hildburghausen; 12. Sachsen-Coburg; 13. Sachsen-Meiningen.

One LANDGRAVIATE, viz. 1. Hessen-Homburg.

Ten PRINCIPALITIES, viz. 1. Hohenzollern-Hechingen; 2. Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; 3. Liechtenstein; 4. Lippe-Detmold; 5. Reuss of the Elder Line; 6. Reuss of the Younger Line; 7. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt; 8. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen; 9. Lippe-Schauenburg; 10. Waldeck.

One ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, viz. the State of the Church.

Eight Republics, viz. 1. Switzerland; 2. Ionia; 3. San Marino; 4. the Free Towns of Hamburgh; 5. Lubeck; 6. Bremen; 7. Frankfort on the Main; 8. Cracovia.

EUROPEAN

RUSSIA AND POLAND.

Extent.] THE gigantic empire, on the geography of the European part of which we are now entering, greatly exceeds in magnitude the largest monarchy of ancient or modern times. The Roman empire, in its most magnificent days, hardly equalled in extent a fourth part of the Russian autocrat's dominions; and the vast Asiatic empire of China is at least one-third part inferior in superficial territory. Of the empires formed by Alexander the Great, Taimur, and Chengîz Khan, only the last equalled that of modern Russia; but while the three former quickly sunk under their own weight, Russia has gone on consolidating and augmenting her territories, until she has become mistress of nearly a seventh part of the habitable globe. According to the best charts, the Russian States, including Poland, but without reckoning the colonies on the north-west coast of America, present a superficial extent of 7,491,491 English square miles, of which 1,626,630 square miles, being eight times the area of France, and fourteen times that of the British Isles,1 with a population probably amounting now to 50,000,000, belong to European Russia.

Boundaries.] The whole northern boundary of European Russia is formed by the Great Icy Sea, whose unknown waters separate it from the North Pole. On one small point the boundaries in this quarter run along the Norwegian frontier, and are thence conducted to the Icy Sea by the Skiekem Jok, the Tana, and the Paswig. On the east, European Russia is bounded by its own Asiatic provinces,-Siberia, Kasan, and Astrachan; on the south by the Kuban, the Black Sea, and the Turkish empire; on the south-west by the latter empire, and that of Austria; and on the west by the kingdom of Prussia, the Baltic, the Bothnian Gulf, and Sweden. The boundaries of Poland, towards Austria and Prussia, have been fixed by treaty, and will be afterwards noticed. The south-western boundaries, towards Turkey, are formed by the Pruth and the Danube. On the Swedish frontiers the boundary line joins that of Norway, runs down the Muonia till it passes Kengis, and thence follows the course of the Tornea till it falls into the Gulf of Bothnia.

The

4 Wichman reckons, exclusive of Poland, Bessarabia, and Moldavia, and the Caucasian highlands, which altogether amount to 97,282 square miles, 7,397,356 square miles as the superficial extent of the whole Russian empire; a calculation which comes pretty near that of Hassel's given in the text. Lichtenstein, says 7,503,559 square miles, of which he gives 1,589,546 to European Russia. Crome agrees with Hassel. Graberg reckons to European Russia, exclusive of Poland and Moldavia, 1,366,145 square miles, and to Asiatic Russia, 5,952,744; or 7,318,889 square miles to the whole empire. According to Professor Kraft of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, the Russian empire, previous to 1783, contained 6,601,120 square miles, including the inland seas, but exclusive of the bays and gulfs. But since that period, numerous acquisitions have been made at the expense of Poland, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Turkey, and Persia.

C

Aland group of islands belongs to Russia. The most undetermined boundaries are, as we have already explained, those on the Asiatic side. In the political divisions of Russia, indeed, no attention has been paid to natural limits; and were we to follow the boundaries in this quarter proposed by Hase and Pallas, we should have to divide the governments of Kasan, Astrachan, and Siberia, between Europe and Asia; but these districts are in every feature so decidedly Asiatic, that we shall reserve our descriptions of them till we come to that division of the earth. The island of Nova Zembla, and the lands of the Cossacks of the Don and of Tshernomorsk, will be included under our present head, on account of their intimate connexion with the European State.

General Divisions.] The European part of the Russian empire may be divided as follows:

45,633,203

Total Extent and Population, 1,626,630

The population, therefore, is nearly as 22 to the square mile.

CHAP. I.-HISTORY.

Ancient History.] Under the common appellation of Scythians and Sarmates, a multitude of Nomade tribes were anciently comprehended. These northern hordes, at a very early period, began to menace the Roman frontiers, and even before the time of Cyrus had invaded what was then called the civilized world, particularly Southern Asia. They inhabited the countries described by Herodotus between the Don and the Dnieper; and Strabo and Tacitus mention the Roxolani, afterwards called Ros, among the Sarmatian tribes dwelling in that district. The Greeks early established commercial colonies here; and in the 2d century the Goths came from the Baltic, and, locating in the neighbourhood of the Don, extended themselves to the Danube. In the 5th century, the country in the neighbourhood of these rivers was overrun by numerous migratory hordes of Alans, Huns, Avarians, and Bulgarians, who were followed by the Slavons, a Sarmatian people, who took a more northerly direction than their predecessors had done. In the next century, the Khozari,2 pressed upon by the Avarians, entered the country between the Wolga and the Don, conquered the Crimea, and thus placed themselves in connexion with the Byzantine empire. The Petshenegri an affiliated tribe of the Khozari, appear at a very early period on the banks of the Caspian. They directed the course of their migrations towards the west, forced the Hungarians into Pannonia, and occupied the country between

3

* The Khozari, a Turki tribe, inhabited to the north of the Caspian, in the middle of the fifth century; and, according to Moses of Chorene, had their Khakan, or great Khan, and their Khatune, or Princesses.

3 The empress Irena was an Avariau princess.