are not sufficient to defray the expenses of the civil establishment. The taxes for the maintenance of the poor, are much more severe on the inhabitants, than those levied for the public.22 The money-currency is very scarce in Iceland; hence it arises that all accounts are paid in dried fish, or in very coarse woollen stuffs, called wadmal. Twenty-eight fishes of two pounds weight each, or thirty yards of wadmal, are equal in value to one thaler, or dollar.

Reykiavik.] Reykiavik, the capital of Iceland, which, about fifty years ago, consisted merely of a few houses, has lately risen into some notice, having become the residence of the governor, the episcopal see, the seat of the supreme court of judicature, and the principal mercantile station on the island. It is situated on the south side of a considerable inlet of the Faxé-fiorden, upon a low marshy ground, between two eminences that are partially covered with grass, and studded with a number of small cottages. It consists of two streets. The dwelling-houses, with two exceptions, are all constructed of wood, in the Norwegian fashion, and have generally a storehouse or two, and a small garden attached to them. "Reykiavik is unquestionably the worst place," says Dr. Henderson, however," to spend the winter in Iceland. Being the resort of a number of foreigners, few of whom have had any education, and who frequent the

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Some curious particulars relative to the ancient state of this island, have been published by Mr. Vhorkelyn, a native of the country. "Iceland," he says, "for a very considerable space of time, viz. from the beginning of the 10th, to the middle of the 13th century, was under a republican form of government. At first, the father, or head of every family, was an absolute sovereign; but in the progress of population and improvement, it became necessary to form certain regulations for the settlement of disputes, concerning the frontiers of different estates. For this purpose, the heads of the families concerned assembled themselves, and formed the outlines of a republic. In the meantime, they carried on a prosperous trade to different parts; sending ships even to the Levant and to Constantinople, at that time celebrated as the only seat of literature in the world. Deputies were likewise sent from this island over land to that capital, for the improvement of their laws and civilization; and this a whole century before the first crusade. In these ancient Icelandic laws, therefore, we meet with evident traces of those of the Greeks and Romans. For example, besides a body of laws, which were written every third year to the people, they had two men chosen annually by the heads of families, with consular power, not only to enforce the laws then in being, but when these proved deficient, to act as necessity required. These laws did not inflict capital punishments upon any person. Murderers were banished to the wood; that is, to the interior and uncultivated parts of the island, where no person was allowed to approach them, within a certain number of fathoms. In cases of banishment for lesser crimes, the friends of the offender were allowed to supply him with necessaries. The culprit, however, might be killed by any person who found him without his bounds; and he might even be hunted and destroyed in his sanctuary, provided he did not withdraw himself from the island within a year after his sentence, which it was supposed he might accomplish by means of the annual arrival and departure of ships. Every man's person was free, until he had forfeited his rights by some crime against society; and so great was their respect for independence, that much indulgence was allowed for the power of passion. If any provoking word or behaviour had been used, no punishment was inflicted on the party who resented it, even though he should have killed his adversary. By the laws, the poor were committed to the protection of their nearest kindred, who had a right to their labour, as far as they were able to work, and afterwards to indemnification, if the poor person should acquire any property. Children were obliged to maintain their parents in their old age; but if the latter had neglected to give them good education, they were absolved from this duty."

It is rather a striking coincidence, that the capital of Iceland should, as it were by mere accident, happen to be built on the very spot where Ingolf, the first of the Norwegian emigrants that settled on the island, fixed his habitation. In conformity to a superstitious practice common in those days, that adventurer, on approaching the eastern coast, threw the wooden pillars of his former habitation into the sea, vowing he would settle wherever they were cast on shore. After some time, his slaves, whom he sent in search of them, found them driven up at this place, and Ingolf true to his vow, fixed his abode at Reykiavik, though reproached by his own slaves for preferring so rugged and barren a spot, to the fine districts they had passed on their way from the east.

island solely for purposes of gain, it not only presents a lamentable blank to the view of the religious observer, but is totally devoid of every source of intellectual gratification. The foreign residents generally idle away the short-lived day with the tobacco pipe in their mouths, and spend the evening in playing at cards, and drinking punch."

Holm.] In consequence of the changes which took place in the ecclesiastical government of the island, the once respectable and far-famed Holm now begins to wear the appearance of a deserted village.

Husavik.] Husavik, which is famous for being the place where Gardar, the second adventurer to Iceland, fixed his habitation, and spent the winter of 864, is situated at the termination of an inlet, on the east side of the Skialfandafiorden, and consists of several stately wooden houses, a sulphur manufactory, and a number of cottages belonging to the workmen. Lying at the height of more than an hundred feet above the level of the sea, the different articles of commerce are here removed to and from the boats by means of a crane, which is fixed on the brow of a perpendicular precipice close to the storehouses. The harbour is reckoned one of the most dangerous on the island, on account of the rocks in the entrance, and its exposure to the north and north-west winds, by which enormous masses of Greenland ice are driven into it. About twenty miles from the north coast of Iceland, we find Green Island, which affords good anchorage. About forty-five leagues to the southward, there existed in ancient times the Island of Bus, which is supposed to have disappeared within the last fifty years,

Authorities.] We have abundance of fabulous accounts of this island. The best sources of information we possess regarding it are the Letters of Sir Joseph Banks; Dr. Hooker's Tour, published in 1813; Dr. Henderson's Journal; and Dr. Gliemanni's account, published in Treuttel and Wurtz's Annual Cabinet of Modern Foreign Voyages and Travels, vol. ii. 1826. We may also mention M. Stephensen's Island i del attende Aarhundrede, etc. Copenhagen, 1808. A very magnificent map of Iceland has been recently published, under the authority of the Danish government, by Admiral Löwernörn.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

THAT great semicircular continent which stretches from Cape North. the most extreme point of the European continent, into the Baltic, and is united to Russia on the N. E. formed, until very lately, two separate kingdoms, and may still be regarded in the same point of view. The eastern and larger country is called Sweden, and the western Norway. Both these kingdoms continued independent of each other from the dissolution of the treaty of Calmar: Norway being united to the crown of Denmark, and Sweden forming an independent kingdom; and although united in 1814 under one ruler, they yet remain distinct kingdoms in as far as regards their political constitution and administration,-the law which binds the Swede, affecting not the Norwegian, and it being possible for either country to go to war without implicating the other in the contest. We shall therefore describe these kingdoms separately in our details.

Extent and Population.] The united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, possess, next to Russia, the greatest superficial extent of territory among the kingdoms of Europe. The total superficies of the two countries, is estimated at 323,360 square miles; of which 172,189 belong to Sweden, and 151,171 to Norway. But the population bears a small proportion to this extent, being reckoned by Balbi in 1826 at 3,866,000 souls, of whom only about 2,790,000 belong to Sweden, and 1,076,000 to Norway. Though in the southern provinces of Sweden, the number of persons to the square mile is 38, and in the middle provinces nearly 21, the northern give only 14, which reduces the population for the whole of Sweden to little more than 14 persons per square mile, or about one fourteenth of the relative density of population in Great Britain; while Norway exhibits an almost doubly greater disproportion of population. We may here remark, that though a common interest evidently ought to unite the two nations of whose geography we are now to treat, so great is the national antipathy on either side that it would seem, at present, that many centuries of union under one Crown must elapse, before the Swedes and Norwegians will come to look upon each other as brethren.

SWEDEN.

Name, Boundaries.] SWEDEN, or, as it is called in the language of the country, Swerige, or Swea Rike, which means, the land of the Swiar,' or Swear, or Sweones, is situated entirely within the cold zone of northern Europe. It is bounded on the N. and N. E. by Russia; on the E. by the Gulf of Bothnia; on the S. E. and S. by the Baltic; on the S. W

by the Sound, the Cattegat, and the German Ocean; and on the W. by Norway, from which it is separated by an extensive range of mountains. On the Russian side, Sweden is protected from sudden invasion by extensive and almost pathless wilds; and its iron-bound coasts are in few places accessible to invading fleets. Its greatest length, from the frontiers of Lapland on the N. E., to Schonen on the S. W. is about 1,200 miles; and its greatest breadth, since the loss of Finland, 350 miles.

CHAP. I.-HISTORY.

Early History.] THE aboriginal inhabitants of Sweden, were of Finnic and Lapponian extraction. They appear to have gradually retreated into the higher latitudes before the advancing population of the German nations, among whom the Goths and Swedes attained an early preponderance, and subdued the other tribes. The conquerors were governed by chiefs of traditionary descent from the fabulous family of the Ynglienger sprung from a son of Odin. In the 5th century, we find them assuming the title of kings of Upsala; and they governed Sweden under this name till 1068. Olof was the first to introduce, in 994, a regular form of government, and to embrace Christianity. At this period, however, the Goths and the Swedes remained distinct tribes, and for many centuries downwards, the feuds of the two rival nations distracted the kingdom. In 1250, the powerful family of the Folkungen having mounted the throne, the rivalry of the two hostile parties gave way, and the Goths and Swedes became one nation. At the same time the succession to the throne was fixed. At this period, the limits of Sweden only extended to Helsingland; but Eric XI. having subdued, in 1248, the interior districts of Finland, and Torkel Knutsen, the guardian of Birgir, having reduced Carelia in 1293, Sweden became the immediate neighbour of Russia towards the close of the 13th century. Magnus Smek, in 1332, acquired Schonen, Blekingen, and Halland; but these provinces were again lost in 1360. Tired of his oppressions, the Swedes revolted in 1363, and gave the Crown to his nephew, Albert of Mecklenburg. The latter prince likewise failed to satisfy the expectations of the Swedish States, and in 1388 fell in battle against the Danes, whom his discontented subjects had called to their help. The following year, Queen Margaret of Denmark and Norway united Sweden with these two kingdoms, which union was farther consolidated by the treaty of Calmar in 1397. Many troubles and rebellions were the consequences of this union, and in 1448 Sweden and Norway chose their own king in the person of Charles Knutsen. After Charles' death, several members of the family of Sture were successively elevated to the throne, under the title of Regents, though in reality with all the power and prerogatives of royalty.

Middle History.] In 1520, Christian II. of Denmark, after having successfully invaded Sweden, was recognised king of that country by the Swedish States. This monarch soon excited the displeasure of his new subjects, having, during the solemnities of his coronation, caused 94 Swedes of noble family to be put to death at Stockholm, notwithstanding the existence of a guarantee of amnesty. Among the hostages who had been treacherously carried prisoners to Denmark was Gustavus Vasa, one of those superior spirits who, by their penetrating intellect and intre

pidity of soul, are qualified for obtaining and preserving ascendency in turbulent times. This nobleman placed himself at the head of his discontented countrymen in 1521; and having succeeded in expelling the Danish arms from Sweden, was proclaimed king in 1523. Under the auspices of this Swedish Alfred, the reformation was introduced into the country, the extensive estates of the Church added to the Crown domains, and commerce and navigation promoted by alliances with England and Holland. The succession to the crown was secured to his descendants in 1544. His son and successor Eric XIV. who governed from 1560 to 1568, added Esthonia to Sweden; and in 1561 introduced the dignities of count and baron, till then unknown in the country. The jealous temper and tyrannical actions of this prince alienated the affections of his subjects. His brother John II. succeeded to the throne in 1568, and governed till 1592. By the peace of Stettin in 1570 John yielded Schonen, Halland, Blekingen, Herjedalen, and Gothland, to Denmark; and in 1580 he embraced Catholicism, in which religion he caused his son, Sigismund, to be educated. Sigismund having accepted the crown of Poland, was in 1602 driven from the throne of Sweden by his ambitious uncle Charles, a zealous Lutheran, who was crowned in 1604 under the name of Charles IX. He was succeeded by the great Gustavus Adolphus.

Gustavus Adolphus.] This hero mounted the throne in his eighteenth year, and reigned from 1611 to 1632. Under his management the kingdom acquired a degree of solidity formerly unknown to it, although his frequent wars with Russia, Denmark, and Poland, checked the progress of population and civilization. In 1613, Gustavus concluded peace with Denmark, and in 1617 a treaty with Russia, by which he gained Ingermannland. By the intervention of Richelieu, he concluded an armistice with Poland in 1629, by which he obtained Livonia, and saw the great object of his wishes within his grasp, in his being enabled to hasten to the aid of the protestant princes of Germany, in 1630, and by this movement to lay the foundation of that influence which Sweden was afterwards to exert over the political destinies of the north-west of Europe. On the 24th of June 1630, Gustavus landed with 30,000 men on the coast of Pomerania, advanced successfully, and, being joined by several of the German princes, gained, on the 7th September, 1631, with the assistance of the Saxon forces, the great victory of Breitenfeld over the imperial general Tilly. The king of Sweden was every where hailed by the protestants as their deliverer; but, painful as it is to expose the weaknesses of great men, it is but too clear that after this victory the designs of Gustavus were directed to his own personal aggrandizement in Germany. His schemes were, however, cut short by his death in the battle of Lutzen, on the 6th November, 1632, where he was opposed to Wallenstein, the greatest general of the age. The victorious issue of that celebrated fight, was not witnessed by the Swedish king, who, in all probability, fell by the hand of a traitor in the hour of victory.

Christina.] Gustavus was succeeded by his infant daughter, Christina, during whose minority the talented chancellor, Oxenstierna, held the reins of government, and conducted the war in Germany, in which the heroic generals Bernard of Weimar, Banner, Wrangel, Torstensen, and Konigsmark, exalted the reputation of the Swedish name, and ended the contest gloriously for Sweden, as she thereby acquired the duchies of Bremen and Verden, all Upper with part of Lower Pomerania, the city of Wismar,