Conjunc- very plausible sources, the same thing would be diffitions. cult in other languages of which the sources are obscure, and absolutely impossible in those of which they are wholly unknown. It is, however, a strong presumption in favour of his opinion, that grammarians have never been able to assign any general characteristic of those species of words; which, did they constitute distinct parts of speech, one would think could not have so long remained undiscovered. It is a farther presumption in his favour, that many words in Greek and Latin, as well as in English, which have been called conjunctions, are obviously resolvable upon his principles, and indeed discover their meaning and origin upon mere inspection. We shall therefore content ourselves with retailing the common doctrine respecting these parts of speech so far as it is intelligible; subjoining at the bottom of the page the analysis given by Horne Tooke of the most important English conjunctions and prepositions; and requesting our readers, who would understand the subject, to attend more to the relations between their various ideas, than to the frivolous distinctions which, in compliance with custom, we are compelled to lay before them. We shall treat first of the conjunction. tion. SECT. I. Of Conjunctions. 115 Definition 101. A conjunction is a part of speech of which, as its of conjunc-name indicates, the use is to connect either two or more words in a sentence, or to make of two simple sentences one compound sentence. It is usually said, that conjunctions never connect words, but sentences only, and that this is the circumstance which distinguishes them from prepositions. We have already given one example which proves this distinction to be ill founded; we shall now give from Horne Tooke one or two more, which will place its absurdity in a still clearer light: Two AND two are four; John AND Jane are a handsome couple; AB and BC and CA form a triangle. Are two four Is John a couple and Jane a couple? Does one straight line form a triangle? From the subjoined note it ap pears, that AND (G) may connect any two things which can be connected, as it signifies addition. 116 Which are Conjunctions connecting sentences, sometimes connect e ther con- their meaning, and sometimes not. For example, let us junctive or take these two sentences, Rome was enslaved, Cæsar disjunctive. was ambitious, and connect them together by the conjunction BECAUSE; Rome was enslaved BECAUSE Cæsar was ambitious. Here the meanings, as well as the sentences, appear to be connected by that natural relation which subsists between an effect and its cause; for the enslaving of Rome was the effect of Caesar's ambition. That particular relation therefore is that which is 3 tions. denoted by the conjunction BECAUSE (H), which would Conjunebe improperly used to connect two sentences between which the relation of an effect to its cause exists not. But if it be said, manners must be reformed, or liberty will be lost; here the conjunction OR, though it join the sentences, yet as to their meaning is a perfect disjunctive. Between the reformation of manners and the loss of liberty there is certainly a natural relation; but it is not the relation of contiguity or similitude, or of cause and effect, but of contrariety. The relation of contrariety therefore is the signification of the word OR (1). And thus it appears, that though all conjunctions may combine sentences, yet, with respect to the sense, some are CONJUNCTIVE and others DISJUNCTIVE. 117 or continu 102. Those conjunctions which conjoin both sentences Conjuncand their meanings are either COPULATIVES or CONTI- tions either NUATIVES. The principal copulative in English is copulative AND, which we have already considered. The conti- ative. nuatives are much more numerous; IF, AN, BECAUSE, THEREFORE, WHEREFORE, HENCE, &c. The difference between them is this: The copulative does no more than barely couple words or sentences, and is therefore applicable to all subjects of which the natures are not incompatible (K). The relation which it denotes is that of juxtaposition, or of one thing added to another. Continuatives, on the contrary, by a more intimate connection, consolidate sentences into one continuous whole ; and are therefore applicable only to subjects which have an essential relation to each other, such as that of an effect to its cause or of a cause to its effect. For example, it is no way improper to say, Lysippus was a statuary, AND Priscian a grammarian; the sun shineth, AND the sky is clear; because these are things that may coexist, and yet imply no absurdity. But it would be absurd to say, Lysippus was a statuary BECAUSE Pris cian was a grammarian; though not to say, the sun shineth BECAUSE the sky is clear. With respect to the first, the reason is, that the word BECAUSE denotes the relation which an effect bears to its cause: but the skill of Priscian in grammar could not possibly be the cause of Lysippus's skill in statuary; the coincidence between the skill of the one and that of the other, in arts so very different, was merely accidental. With respect to the shining of the sun and the clearness of the sky, the case is widely different; for the clearness of the sky is the CAUSE of the sun's shining, at least so as to be seen by us. As to the continuatives, they are either SUPPOSITIVE, Continuasuch as if, an; or POSITIVE, such as because, therefore, as, tives, either &c. Take examples of each: You will live happily IF you suppositive live honestly; you live happily BECAUSE you live honestly; or positive. you live honestly, THEREFORE you live happily. The difference between these continuatives is this: The suppositives denote connection, but do not assert actual exG 2 istence; (G) AND is a Saxon word, being (according to Mr H. Tooke) an abbreviation of ANAD, the imperative of the verb ANANAD, to add to or heap up. So that when we say two AND two are four, we only declare that two ADDED TO two are four. (H) BECAUSE is compounded of the Saxon BE-by, and cause; and by some of our most ancient authors it was written BY CAUSE. Rome was enslaved BECAUSE Cæsar was ambitious, is therefore equivalent to, Rome was enslaved by the cause CESAR WAS AMBITIOUS; taking the phrase, Casar was ambitious as an abstract noun in concord with the other noun cause.. (1) OR seems to be a mere contraction of the Saxon ODER, which signifies other, i. e. something different and often contrary. So that the conjunction or must always denote diversity, and very often contrariety. (K) As day and night, heat and cold: for we cannot say of the same portion of time, it is day AND it is night; or of the same body, it is both hot AND cold. Conjunc- istence; the positives imply both the one and the other (L). tions. The positives above mentioned are either CAUSAL; such as, because, since, as (M), &c.: Or COLLECTIVE; such as, therefore, wherefore, &c. The difference between Conjunc these is this: The causals subjoin causes to effects; as, tions the sun is in eclipse, BECAUSE the moon intervenes: The collectives subjoin effects to causes; as, the moon intervenes, THEREFORE (L) The reason of all this will be apparent from the analysis given by Horne Tooke of those words which we have called suppositive conjunctions. IF and AN may be used mutually and indifferently to supply each other's place; for they are both verbs, and of the same import. Ir is merely the imperative of the Gothic and AngloSaxon verb GIFAN, to give; and in those languages, as well as in the English formerly, this supposed conjunction was pronounced and written as the common imperative GIF. Thus, "My largesse "Hath lotted her to be your brother's mistresse, Sad Shepherd, Act ii. scene 1. Gawin Douglass almost always uses GIF for IF, as the common people in some counties of Scotland do even at this day; and it is obvious, that our IF has always the signification of the English imperative give, and no other. So that the resolution of the construction in the sentence, IF you live honestly you will live happily, is simply this, GIVE you live honestly (taking you live honestly as an abstract noun) you will live happily. Your living happily is declared to depend upon your living honestly as the condition; but give that, and your happiness is positively asserted. In like manner may such sentences be resolved as, "I wonder he can move! that he's not fixed! "IF THAT his feelings be the same with mine." Thus, "His feelings be the same with mine, give that, I wonder he can move," &c. And here we cannot As, the other causal conjunction mentioned in the text, is an article meaning always 1T, or THAT, or WHICH. "She glides away under the foamy seas "As swift AS darts or feather'd arrows fly." That Conjunc. THEREFORE (N) the sun is in eclipse. We therefore use tions causals in those instances where, the effect being conspicuous, we seek for its cause; and collectives, in demonstration and science, properly so called, where the cause being first known, by its help we discern effects. 119 Causal con kinds of causes. As to causal conjunctions, we may further observe, junctions that there is no one of the four species of causes denote four which they are not capable of denoting. For example, the MATERIAL cause; The trumpet sounds BECAUSE it is made of metal. The FORMAL; The trumpet sounds BECAUSE it is long and hollow. The EFFICIENT; The trumpet sounds BECAUSE an artist blows it. The FINAL ; The trumpet sounds THAT it may raise our courage. It is worth observing, that the three first causes are expressed by the strongest affirmation; because if the effect actually be, these must be also. But this is not the case with respect to the last, which is only affirmed as a thing that may happen. The reason is obvious; for whatever may be the end which set the artist first to work, that end it may still be beyond his power to obtain; as, like all other contingents, it may either happen or not. Hence also it is connected by a particular conjunction, THAT (0), absolutely confined to this Of these disjunctives some are SIMPLE and some AD- Either simVERSATIVE: Simple; as when we say, EITHER it is day ple or adversative. or it is night: Adversative; as when we say, it is not day BUT it is night. The difference between these is, that the simple express nothing more than a relation of DIVERSITY; the adversative express a relation not barely of diversity; but also of OPPOSITION. Add to this, that the adversatives are DEFINITE, the simple INDEFINITE. Thus when we say, the number three is not an even number BUT (P) an odd, we not only disjoin two opposite attributes, but we definitely affirm the one to belong to the Disjunctive conjunctions. 103. We come now to the DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNC That is, "She glides away (with) THAT swiftness (with) WHICH darts or feathered arrows fly." In German, where AS still retains its original signification and use, it is written ES. So is another conjunction of the same import with AS, being evidently the Gothic article sa or so, which signifies it or that. (N) As Mr Harris has called THEREFORE, WHEREFORE, &c. collective conjunctions, we have retained the denomination, though perhaps a more proper might be found. It is indeed of little consequence by what name any class of words be called, provided the import of the words themselves be understood. WHEREFORE and THEREFORE evidently denote the relation of a cause to its effects. They are compounds of the Saxon words HWÆR and THÆR with FOR or VOOR: and signify, for which, for those, or that. It is worthy of remark, that in some parts of Scotland the common people even at this day use THIS for these. (0) We have already considered the word THAT, and seen that it is never a conjunction, but uniformly a definite article. "The trumpet sounds (for) THAT it may raise our courage" taking the clause it may raise our courage as an abstract noun in concord with that and governed by for. Or the sentence may be resolved thus: "The trumpet may raise our courage (for) that (purpose) it sounds." (P) Mr Horne Tooke has favoured us with some ingenious remarks on the two different derivations of the word BUT, when used in the two acceptations that are usually annexed to it, viz. that which it bears in the beginning of a sentence, and that which it has in the middle. He has given it as his opinion, that this word, when employed in the former way, is corruptly put for BOT, the imperative of the Saxon verb BOTAN, to boot, to superadd, to supply, &c. and that when used in the latter it is a contraction of BE-UTAN, the imperative of BEONUTAN, to be out. Our ancient writers made the proper distinction between the orthography of the one word and that of the other. Gawin Douglass, in particular, although he frequently confounds the two words, and uses them improperly, does yet abound with many instances of their proper use; and so contrasted, as to awaken, says our author, the most inattentive reader. Of the many examples quoted by him, we shall content ourselves with the two following: "BOT thy worke shall endure in laude and glorie, "At my pleasure suffer it me life to leid." Preface. Book iv. If this derivation of the word BUT from BOTAN, to superadd, be just, the sentence in the text, "the number, three is not an even number BUT an odd," will be equivalent to, "the number three is not an even number, superadd (it is) an odd number;" and if so, the opposition is not marked (at least directly) by the word BUT, but by the adjectives EVEN and ODD, which denote attributes in their own nature opposite. It is only when BUT has this sense that it answers to sed in Latin, or to mais in French. In the second line of the quotation from Gawin Douglass's Preface, the word BUT is evidently a contraction of BE-UTAN, and has a sense very different from that of BOT in the preceding line. The meaning of the couplet is, "SUPERADD (to something said or supposed to be said before) thy work shall endure in laude and glorie, BE OUT (i. e. without) spot or fault," &c. In the following passage from DONNE, the word BUT, although written in the same manner, is used in both its meanings: "You must answer, that she was brought very near the fire, and as good as thrown in ; or else, that she was provoked to it by a divine inspiration. BUT that another divine inspiration moved the beholders to believe that she did therein a noble act, this act of her's might have been calumniated." That tions. tion. 722 LESS and ALTHOUGH. For example, "Troy will be Conjunc Conjunc- the subject, and deny the other. But when we say, the Besides the adversatives already mentioned, there are Such is the doctrine of Mr Harris; which although we can discover in it no determinate meaning, we have ventured with others to retail, in respect to our readers, who may be more perspicacious than ourselves. The author was a man of great learning; and the subject, as he has treated it, appears to be intricate. But whatever sense or nonsense there may be in what he says of causes and preventives adequate and inadequate, we have no hesitation to affirm that he has totally mistaken the import of the words UNLESS and ALTHOUGH. From these being called both preventives, the one adequate and the other inadequate, an unwary reader might be led to infer, that they denote the same idea or the same relation; and that the whole difference between them is, that the expression of the one is more forcible than that of the other. Nothing, however, can be farther than this from the truth. The meaning of UNLESS is directly opposite to that of ALTHOUGH. UNLESS (R) and THOUGH are is, "You must answer, that she was brought very near the fire," &c. Superadd (to that answer) BE OUT (or UNLESS or WITHOUT; for, as will be seen by and bye, all those words are of the same import) that another divine inspiration moved," &c. To these remarks and examples it may be worth while to add, that even now BUT is often used by the illiterate Scotch for WITHOUT; as nothing is more common than to hear a clown say, "He came from home BUT his breakfast." Having mentioned WITHOUT as a word of the same import with BUT when distinguished from BOT, it may not be improper to consider that word here; for though in modern English it is entirely confined to the office of a preposition, it was formerly used indifferently either as a preposition or a conjunction. WITHOUT then is nothing but the imperative WYRTHAN-UTAN, from the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic verb WEORTHAN, WITHAN; which in the Anglo-Saxon language is incorporated with the verb BEON, esse. According to this derivation, which is Horne Tooke's, the word WITHOUT, whether called conjunction or preposition, is the same as BE OUT; and such will be its import, should it after all be nothing more than a compound of WITH, which signifies to join, and sometimes to be, and UTE, out. (Q) EITHER is nothing more than a distributive pronoun, which every body understands; and OR we have already explained. (R) So low down as in the reign of Queen Elizabeth (says Horne Tooke) this conjunction was sometimes written oneles or onelesse; but more anciently it was written ONLES and sometimes ONLESSE. Thus, in the trial of Sir John Oldcastle in 1413, "It was not possible for them to make whole Christes cote without seme, ONLESSE certeyn great men were brought out of the way." So, in "The image of governance," by Sir T. Elliot, 1451, "Men do fere to approache unto their sovereigne Lord, ONELES they be called." So again, in "A necessary doctrine and erudition for any Christian man, set furthe by the king's majestie of England," 1543,"ONLES ye believe, ye shall not understande." "No man shall be crowned, ONLES he lawfully fight." "The soul waxeth feeble, ONLESSE the same be cherished." "It cannot begynne, ONELESSE by the grace of God." Now, ONLES is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb ONLESAN, to dismiss or remove. LES, the imperative of LESAN (which has the same meaning as ONLESAN), is likewise used sometimes by old writers instead of UNLESS. Instances might be given in abundance from G. Douglass and Ben Johnson; but perhaps it may be of more importance to remark, that it is this same imperative LES, which, placed at the end of nouns and coalescing with them, has given to our language such adjectives as hopeless, restless, deathless, motion·less, &c. i. e. dismiss hope, rest, death, motion, &c. Mr Tooke observes, that all the languages which have a conjunction corresponding to LESS or UNLESS, as 3 well 123 Conjuuc. are both verbs in the imperative mode : the former sig. cess as it has lately been done by Mr Horne Tooke in Conjunetions. nifying take away or dismiss : the latter allou', permit, English, then, and not till then, may we hope to see a tiuns. na grant, yield, assent. This being the case, “ Troy will be rational, comprehensive, and consistent theory of this taken UNLESS the palladium be preserved," is a sen- part of speech. Then too shall we get rid of all that serves only not authorise us positively to affirm. It is, however, a 104. Before we take leave of this subject, we might strong presumption in favour of his opinion, that illitetreat, as others have treated, of adverbial conjunctions, rate savages, the first cultivators of language, are little and conjunctions (T) of various other denominatious. likely to have sent out their faculties in quest of words But of multiplying subdivisions there is no end ; and to denote the abstract relations subsisting among their systems, in wbich they abound, convey for the most ideas, when we have suclı evidence as his book affords part no information. The nature of conjunctions can that the names of the most common substances and qualibe thoroughly understood only by tracing each to its ties could answer that and every other purpose, which in original in some parent or cognate tongue; and when the ordinary intercourse of life can be answered by the that shall be done in other languages with as much suc- faculty of speech. It is a farther presumption in his favour, a well as the manner in which the place of these words is sapplied in the languages which have not a conjunction cor- (s) ALTHOUGH is compounded of al or all, and Tho', THOUGH, THAT, or, as the vulgar more purely pronounce (T) In a work of this kind, which professes to treat of universal grammar, it would be impertinent to waste oor To give. ANAN ONLESAN To dismiss. EAKAN To add. GETAN STELLAN ALESAN To diminish. THAFIGAN To allow. THAFIAN BOTAN To boot, or superadd. BEON-UTAN To be out. WYRTAAN.UTAN To be out. ANAN AD Dare congeriem. SITHTHAN SEAND-ES is the participle of SEON, to see. GIF To grant. To get. Are the Imperatives Of their respective Verbs or or or or SIN-ES |