THE LAW OF NATIONS.

DATIONS, like individuals, are bound by certain laws which govern and control their relation and conduct to each other. It is, or should be, based upon the divine precept, "Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them." No other rule is just, and nations are as strongly bound to obey it as an individual. This, however, is not enough; and sad as is the commentary, in other and more human laws they find a stronger protection. There is no tribunal but that of public opinion to enforce upon nations an observance of the courtesy due each other, but, in this age, there is not a civilized government on earth that does not stand sufficiently in awe of this to openly respect its compact with other nations.

There can, of course, be no court for the adjustment of national misunderstandings; and each nation is therefore a law unto itself, and the chief judge of its own wrongs and grievances; hence, when difficulties and disputes arise between them, and neither reason nor charity will lead to a peaceful settlement of their troubles, war is resorted to, and by force of arms, or superiority of numbers, one is forced to yield its claims to the other, and often to relinquish justice. A nation's strength is not always a nation's glory, since it may have been acquired by the most dishonorable means; and a nation's greatness is not always a nation's honor, since it may have been reached in such a way as to be its shame. In the ages when the most bloody and cruel war begat heroes, and the most treacherous and cowardly acts often crowned them with laurels, it was enough that a nation was victorious; it mattered little whether that victory, or the terms dictated to the conquered, were honorable or otherwise, and some of the most noted of the ancient Roman and Grecian warriors were distinguished for cruelty, tyranny and treachery. To violate a treaty was, with

Rome, but to proclaim that it was more to her interest to break than to keep it-or that she was strong enough to-day to withdraw what she conceded through weakness yesterday. Every nation has, as much as every family, the right to regulate its own domestic or internal affairs; and no other nation has a right to interfere, no matter what its laws or customs may be, or how barbarous or inhuman; and they may alter or abolish them, in part or altogether, as they chose, but it must be done with proper consideration for the rights of others, and care that it does not interfere with or injure them.

All political divisions are protected under and by the law of nations, as the States of a confederacy or union are protected by the constitution that is binding upon all alike; and any nation or kingdom guilty of wilfully violating treaties, or resorting to dissimulation to free itself from honest obligations, or wantonly making unprovoked war upon a neighbor would forfeit its claim to the protection of the law of nations, and all governments would be bound to see that justice was done to the wronged party. Every government is free to act as it sees fit in making treaties, and in using its discretion and judgment as to what is best for itself.

Every nation has an exclusive right to the use, for navigation, or other purposes, of the rivers flowing through its own territory, to sea, lake or inland bay, and to its own sea coast for three miles from shore; and all her vessels, of whatever description, going beyond that line, are considered in foreign waters, and must be provided with passports from their government, which is neither more nor less than an official certificate that the ship is from the country under whose flag she sails, and gives permission to visit certain ports or countries, and to navigate certain waters without molestation. It gives a minute and truthful description of the vessel, her officers, crew, lading, capacity, guns, etc., and asks of all powers that the vessel be allowed to pass on her journey without disturbance; and any molestation or insult to her is an insult to the nation whose flag she bears, and one requiring the fullest apology and the most ample amendment, according to the law of nations.

Every nation has its agent or representative at the national capital, at the court, or legislative assemblage of each other; and

the failure of a nation to send a minister to a court, or assembly of national interest, is often a sign of non-recognition of that power. These officers are divided into four classes: Ist, Ambassadors or Papal Legates; 2d, Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary; 3d, Resident Minister, accredited to sovereigns or independent nations; 4th, Charge d'Affaires, accredited to the minister of foreign affairs. An ambassador holds the highest rank, and acts in the place of the sovereign who employs him, and his word is absolute, so far as his government is concerned; and is entitled to all the honors which would be paid to the ruler he represents personally; and he is not answerable or held accountable to the country he visits for any crime or atrocity, but it can be exacted of his own government that he be re-called and punished.

In times of peace, special agents sent out in case of an emergency, or for a special purpose, is styled an envoy. A plenipotentiary is a minister who is authorized to act for his sovereign in any negotiations, and to arrange terms and treaties at the close of war. The ministers of the United States are required to keep their government notified of everything which is of interest or importance to it, to see that justice is done to their countrymen, that they are not oppressed or wronged, and to encourage every movement which tends to the enlightenment of the race, and to improve their condition. A charge d'affaires ranks lowest in the class of foreign ministers-is, indeed, a deputy simply, and intrusted by the ambassador to take charge of the business with which he intrusts him. A consul is a commercial agent, who is sent by his government to reside abroad, and his business lies usually in. seaport towns. The consul must carry with him a certificate of his appointment, must be publicly recognized and receive from the government under which he proposes to reside a written permission to perform his special duties. He is not entitled to the immunities of a minister and may be discharged at the will of the government to whom he is sent; but an ambassador can only be withdrawn at the will of the sovereign he represents. The refusal to receive a consul is never considered a breach of etiquette, but a refusal to receive a minister would be an open insult to his government, and denote great dissatisfaction, if not actual hostility. It is not customary, nor admissible, to open war upon

any nation without a certain preliminary course. It is preceded by setting forth the wrongs and grievances upon which it is based, and asking peaceful redress and not until every other means have been tried, and every other measure resorted to without success, is war justified by the law of nations. In the United States the power to declare war is intrusted to the national legislature. When once war has been declared, every subject is considered or treated as if responsible for the acts of his government, and enmity and hostility exists, not only between the active armies, but between the individuals who comprise the nations, and indirectly they support the war, since the taxes levied upon them, paid, it may be reluctantly, yet paid, are the only means by which the armies could be sustained or war carried on.

A blockade is the surrounding of a place with hostile troops or ships in such a manner as to prevent escape and hinder supplies of ammunition and provision from entering, with a view to compelling a surrender by hunger and want, without regular attacks. No neutral nation is permitted to afford aid or relief to the inhabitants, and all supplies in a state of transmission for such relief, are subject to confiscation. A mere declaration of blockade is not sufficient, nor is it binding upon neutral powers, unless they have first been notified, and the port or country surrounded in such a manner as to prevent ingress or egress.

A truce is a temporary suspension of hostilities by the mutual agreement of the two armies, and at the close of it, war may be at once resumed, and it may be general, or only partial. A partial truce suspends hostilities only at one point, while a general truce extends over all the dominion of the hostile nations.

A declaration of war is a total prohibition of commercial intercourse between the citizens of the two opposing powers, and any contracts made between them are null and void; neither is it lawful to insure the property of, or remit money to, a citizen of the other country.

An embargo is an injunction to vessels not to leave port, and can only be issued by the supreme rulers of a country, and implies that there is threatening and immediate danger.

Letters of marque and reprisal are sealed commissions granted by a government to its citizens, licensing the seizure of an enemy's property, or of the person of those who belong to a government