(c.) The felly, Iruç." This was commonly made of some flexible and elastic wood, such as poplar1 or the wild fig, which was also used for the rim of the chariot; heat was applied to assist in produ CURU'CA or CURRU'CA, a bird mentioned by cing the requisite curvature. The felly was, how Aristotle under the name of vroλaiç. Gaza trans-ever, composed of separate pieces, called arcs (apilates this Greek term by Curuca. Gesner inclines to the opinion that it is the Titlark, or Anthus pratensis, Bechstein.

CURULIS SELLA. (Vid. Sella Curulis.) CURRUS, dim. CURRICULUM (&pua), a Chariot, a Car. These terms appear to have denoted those two-wheeled vehicles for the carriage of persons which were open overhead, thus differing from the carpentum, and closed in front, in which they differed from the cisium. One of the most essential articles in the construction of the currus was the vrv, or rim; and it is accordingly seen in all the chariots which are represented either in this ar- All the parts now enumerated are seen in an anticle, or at p. 66, 209, 253. (Vid. ANTYX.) Another cient chariot preserved in the Vatican, a representindispensable part was the axle, made of oak (pny-ation of which is given in the following woodcut. vos uswv), and sometimes also of ilex, ash, or elm.10 The cars of Juno and Neptune have metallic axles (σidnpéos, xáλkεo dźw11). One method of making a chariot less liable to be overturned was to lengthen its axle, and thus to widen the base on which it stood. The axle was firmly fixed under the body

rings at the extremities of the yoke. All the par- | overthrown in passing the goal at the circus ticulars which have been mentioned are still more distinctly seen in the second figure, taken from a terra-cotta at Vienna.' It represents a chariot

1. (Ovid, Mex, ii., 316.)-2. (Eschyl., Pers., 47.)-3. (Hom., IL, V., 195; x., 473.)-4. (Xen., Hell., i., 2.1.)-5. (Virg., En., vii., 280.)-6. (Georg., iii., 91.)-7. (Hom., Il., xvi., 148154, 467-474.)-8 (Wagen und Fahrwerke, vol i, p. 342.)-9. Ginzrot, v. ii., p 107, 108.)

CURRUS.

works of art, the currus was sometimes drawn by four horses without either yoke or pole; for we see two of them diverging to the right hand and two to the left, as in the beautiful cameo on p. 334, 1st col., which exhibits Apollo surrounded by the signs of the zodiac. If the ancients really drove the quadriga thus harnessed, we can only suppose the charioteer to have checked its speed by pulling up the horses, and leaning with his whole body backward, so as to make the bottom of the car at its hindermost border scrape the ground, an act and an attitude which seem not unfrequently to be intended in antique representations.

CURRUS

nent, he returned to his chariot, one of the cmet uses of which was to rescue him from danger. When Automedon prepares to encounter both Her tor and Æneas, justly fearing the result, he directa his charioteer, Alcimedon, instead of driving the horses to any distance, to keep them "breathing u his back," and thus to enable him to effect his es cape in case of need.

These chariots, as represented on bas-reliefs and fictile vases, were exceedingly light, the body often consisting of little besides a rim fastened to the bot tom and to the axle. Unless such had been really their construction, it would be difficult to imag ne The currus, like the cisium, was adapted to carry how so great a multitude of chariots could have been two persons, and on this account was called in transported across the Egean Sea. Homer also Greek diepos. One of the two was, of course, the supposes them to be of no greater weight; for, aldriver. He was called hvíoxoç, because he held the though a chariot was large enough to convey two reins, and his companion Tapaibúrns, from going by persons standing, not sitting, and on some occahis side or near him. Though in all respects supe- sions was also used to carry off the armour of the rior, the mapaibúrng was often obliged to place him- fallen,' or even the dead body of a friend, yet Diself behind the vioxos. He is so represented in the omed, in his nocturnal visit to the enemy's camp, biga at p. 66, and in the Iliad1 Achilles himself stands deliberates whether to draw away the splendid behind his charioteer Automedon. On the other chariot of Rhesus by the pole, or to carry it off on hand, a personage of the highest rank may drive his his shoulder. The light and simple construction of own carriage, and then an inferior may be his a-war-chariots is also supposed by Virgil,' when he paibárns, as when Nestor conveys Machaon (ráp' represents them as suspended with all kinds of dè Maxáuv Balve3), and Juno, holding the reins and armour on the entrance to the temple of the Lauwhip, conveys Minerva, who is in full armour. In rentian Picus. such cases a kindness, or even a compliment, was We have already seen that it was not unusual, conferred by the driver upon him whom he convey- in the Homeric battles, to drive three horses, one ed, as when Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, "himself being a rapńopoç: in a single instance, that of Hecholding the reins, made Plato his raрaibárns." In tor, four are driven together. In the games, the the contest which has been already referred to, and use of this number of horses was, perhaps, even which was so celebrated in Greek mythology, Eno- more common than the use of two. The form of mans intrusts the reins to the unfaithful Myrtilus, the chariot was the same, except that it was more and assumes the place of his rapaɩbárns, while Pe- elegantly decorated. But the highest style of orlops himself drives with Hippodamia as his rapai-nament was reserved to be displayed in the quadribars, thus honouring her in return for the service she had bestowed.'

The car

gæ, in which the Roman generals and emperors rode when they triumphed. The body of the triThe Persepolitan sculptures, and the innumera- umphal car was cylindrical, as we often see it ble paintings discovered in Egyptian tombs, concur represented on medals. It was enriched with gold with the historical writings of the Old Testament, (aureo curru1) and ivory. The utmost skill of the and with the testimony of other ancient authors, in painter and the sculptor was employed to enhance showing how commonly chariots were employed on its beauty and splendour. More particularly the the field of battle by the Egyptians, the Persians, extremities of the axle, of the pole, and of the yoke, and other Asiatic nations. The Greek poetry of were highly wrought in the form of animals' heads. the heroic ages proves with equal certainty the ear- Wreaths of laurel were sometimes bung round it ly prevalence of the same custom in Greece. The (currum_laurigerum'), and were also fixed to the PLOTNES, i. e., the nobility, or men of rank, who heads of the four snow-white horses 10 wore complete suits of armour, all took their char- was elevated so that he who triumphed might be iots with them, and in an engagement placed them- the most conspicuous person in the procession, and, selves in front. Such were the inreis, or cavalry for the same reason, he was obliged to stand erect of the Homeric period; the precursors of those who, | (in curru stantis eburno11). A friend, more especially after some centuries, adopted the less expensive a son, was sometimes carried in the same chariot and ostentatious practice of riding on horseback, but who, nevertheless, in consideration of their wealth and station, still maintained their own horses, rather to aid and exhibit themselves individually on the field than to act as members of a compact body. In Homer's battles we find that the horseman, who, for the purpose of using his weapons, and in consequence of the weight of his armour, is under the necessity of taking the place of rapaibárns (see the woodcut of the triga, p. 332), often assails or challenges a distant foe from the chariot; but that, when he encounters his adversain close combat, they both dismount, "springing from their chariots to the ground,” and leaving them to the care of the ἡνίοχοι. So likewise Turnus is described by Virgil, "Desiluit Turnus bijugis; pedrs apparat ire Comminus." As soon as the hero 1. (I., xvii., 502.)—2. (Il., xvii., 540.)-3. (I., xiii., 657 had finished the tria. of nis strength with his oppo-Flor., ., 5.-Hlor., Epod., X., 22.)-8. (Ovid, Trist., iv., 2, 63 4. (II., x., 503-505.)-5. (En., v., 184.)-6. (II., vil., 185.)--7

1. (xix., 397.)-2. (П., xi., 512, 517.)-3. (v., 720-775.)-4. (Ehan, V. H., v., 18.)-5. (Apollon. Rhod., i., 752-758.)-6. (Vid. p. 94. 97.)—7. (II., iii., 29; xvi., 425, 427; xvii., 480-483. Hesiod, Scut. Herc., 370-372.)-8. (Æn., x., 453.)

by his side. When Germanicus celebrated his triumph, the car was "loaded" with five of his children in addition to himself." The triumphal car had, in general, no pole, the horses being led by men who were stationed at their heads.

The chariot was an attribute not only of the gods, but of various imaginary beings, such as Victory, often so represented on coins, vases, and sculptures (biga, cui Victoria institerat1); Night (Nox bigis subvecta1); and Aurora, whom Virgil represents as driving either two horses1 or four,1 in this agreeing with the figure in our last woodcut. In general, the poets are more specific as to the number of horses in the chariots of the deities, and it rarely exceeded two. Jupiter, as the father of the gods,

-Pont., iii., 4, 35.)-9. (Claudian, De Laud. Stil., ii ., 20.)Tert. Cons. Honor., 130.)-10. (Mart., vii., 7.)-11. (Ovid, 1 c.)-12. (Val. Max., v., 10, 2.)--13. (Tac., Ann., ii., 41-14 (Tacit., Hist., i., 86.)—15. (Virg., Æn.,, 721.)-16 (vr. -17. (535.)

66

the

drives four white horses when he goes armed with | sometimes adopted by the Romans to grace the tir his thunderbolt to resist the giants: Pluto is drawn umphal arch by being placed on its summit; and by four black horses. The following line, even in the private houses of great families, & ariots were displayed as the indications of rank, memorials of conquest and of triumph.1 CUSTO DES. (Vid. COMITIA, p. 297.) measure, containing one twelfth of the sextarius CY'ATHUS (vaboç), a Greek and Roman liquid or 0825 of a pint English. It was, in later times at least, the measure of the common drinking-glass Greeks. The form of the cyathus used at ban among the Romans, who borrowed it from the quets was that of a small ladle, by means of which the wine was conveyed into the drinking-cups from the large vessel (xparip) in which it was mixed.' Two of these cyathi are represented in the ann xed woodcut from the Museo Borbonico, vol. iv.,

Quadrijugis et Phabus equis, et Delia bigis," is in accordance not only with numerous passages of the poets, but with many works of art. A bronze lamp shows the moon, or Diana, descending in a biga, and followed by Apollo, who is crowned with rays as he rises in a quadriga. The same contrast is exhibited in the annexed woodcut, showing the devices on two gems in the royal collection at BerThat on the left hand, representing Apollo encircled by the twelve signs, calls to mind the en

lin.

18

graving on the seal of Amphitryon, "Cum quadrigis sol exoriens." In the Eneid, Latinus drives a chariot and four to express his claim to be descended from Apollo. The chariots of Jupiter and of the Sun are, moreover, painted on ancient vases with wings proceeding from the extremities of the axle (πTηòv apua; volucrem currum).

These supernatural chariots were drawn not only by horses, but by a great variety of brute or imaginary beings. Thus Medea received from the Sun a car with winged dragons." Juno is drawn by peacocks, Diana by stags,' Venus by doves or swans, Minerva by owls, Mercury by rams, and Apollo by griffons. To the car of Bacchus, and, consequently, of Ariadne (vid. CAPISTRUM, p. 209), are yoked centaurs, tigers and lynxes:

"Tu bijugum pictis insignia frenis Colla premis lyncum." Chariots executed in terra-cotta (quadriga fictiles), in bronze, or in marble, an example of which last is shown in the annexed woodcut from an ancient chariot in the Vatican, were among the most beautiful ornaments of temples and other public edi

fices

No pains were spared in their decoration; and Pliny informs us that some of the most eminent artists were employed upon them. In numerous instances they were designed to perpetuate the fame of those who had conquered in the chariotrace." As the emblem of victory, the quadriga was

1. (Manil., v., 3.)-2. (Bartoli, Ant. Lucerne, 11., 9.)-3. Plaut., Amphit., i., 1, 266.)-4. (xii., 162.)-5. (Plato, Phæd.) 6. (Hor., Carm, 1., 34, 8.)-7. (Apollod., i., 9, 28.)--8. (Ovid, Met., ii., 531.)-9. (Claudian, De Laud. Stil., iii., 285-290.Combe, Phigalian Marbles, pl. xi.)-10. (Ovid, Met., iv. 23.)11. (Plin., AN, xxviii., 4.)-19. (H. N., xxxiv., 19.)-13. Pans., v., 10.)

The cyathus was the uncia, considered with ret erence to the sextarius as the unit: hence we have sextans used for a vessel containing the sixth of the sextarius, or two cyathi, quadrans for one contain ing three cyathi, triens for four cyathi, quincunx for five cyathi, &c.

*CYCLAM'INUS (κvκλáμivos), a plant, of which Dioscorides mentions two species. The first appears to be the Cyclamen Europaum, or common Sow-bread. About the second there has been much difference of opinion. Dodonæus and Hardouin conclude that it was the Bitter-sweet (Salanum dulcamara); but Sprengel follows Gesner in referring it to the Lonicera periclymenum, or Woodbine.

*CYCNUS (KÚKvos). This appellation, as Adams remarks, is generally applied to the Anas Cycnus, L., or Wild Swan; but sometimes also to the Anas Olor, or Tame Swan. It is to the wild swan that the Homeric epithet dovλixódɛipos, "long-necked," is particularly applicable." "It is to this species (the Anas Cycnus)," observes Griffith, "that the ancients attributed so melodious a voice: but this opinion, however accredited, was not universal. It was contested by Lucian, Pliny, and Elian; and even Virgil speaks only of the disagreeable cries of the swan. Some moderns have, notwithstanding, adopted the popular notions of the ancients on this subject, and, even in contradiction to the evidence of their senses, have endeavoured to persuade themselves of its truth. It is sufficient to observe, from all creuitable evidence, that the opinion is ut terly unfounded. The swan neither sings during its lifetime, nor, as some assert, just before ita death. The comparatively modern discovery of the Black Swan seems to lead to the conclusion that the Cycnus Niger of antiquity was not altogether a

fabulous creature.""

1. (Juv., viii., 3)-2. (Varro, De Ling. Lat., v., 194, ed. Mül ler.)-3. (Becker, Charikles, vol. i., p. 463.)-4. (Warm, De Pond. Mens., &c.--Hussey on Ancient Weights, &c.). (The ophrast., H. P., vii, 9.-Dioscor., ii., 193-Hardouin ad Plin. H. N., xxv. 68.)-6. (Adams, Append., s. v.)-7. (Griffith's Ca vier, vol. viii., p. 660.)

CYMBALUM

CYNOCEPHALI.

Several kinds of cymbals are found on anciers monuments, and, on the other hand, a great many names have been preserved by the grammarian and lexicographers; but the descriptions of the latter are so vague, that it is impossible to identify one with the other. A large class of cymbals wa termed xpoúuara, which, if they were really distinct from the xpóraλa, as Spohn and Lampe suppose, cannot now be exactly described. (Vid. CROTA LUM.) The preceding drawing of a κpovua is taken from an ancient marble, and inserted on the author

CYDONIUM MALUM, the Quince, the fruit of he Pirus Cydonia. The name arose from that of the city of Cydon, in Crete, whence they were first brought to Greece. Cato first gave it the appellation of Cotoneum malum, and Pliny followed him. The ancient writers mention several varieties of the Quince: thus the true ones (xvdóvia) were small and round; another kind, the orpoúleta, was of a large size, and sweeter than the former. Columella enumerates three kinds, namely, Struthea, Mustea, and Chrysomela. The last, however, belongs to the orange family. The Quince-tree is still called xv-ity of Spohn.' dovia in northern Greece. According to Sibthorp, it is cultivated in gardens with the apple-tree.1

The xpéubala mentioned in the Homeric hymn to Apollo were of this kind, played on by a chorus of Delians. The scabilla or xроvπélia were also on the same principle, only played with the foot, and

CYMINDIS (Kvμvdic). (Vid. HIERAX.) CYCLAS (KUKλás) was a circular robe worn by women, to the bottom of which a border was affix-inserted in the shoe of the performer; they were ed, inlaid with gold. used by flute-players, perhaps to beat time to their

music.

"Hac nunc aurata cyclade signat humum." Other kinds of cymbals were, the rλaray, an inAlexander Severus, in his other attempts to re-vention of Archytas, mentioned by Aristotle, and strain the luxury of his age, ordained that women its diminutive λarayúviov, which, from the descripshould only possess one cyclas each, and that it tion of Julius Pollux and Hesychius, appears to should not be adorned with more than six unciæ of have been a child's rattle; bubapa, the two parts gold. The cyclas appears to have been usually of which Suidas tells us were made of different made of some thin material (tenui in cyclade). It materials, for the sake of variety of sound; KOTis related, among other instances of Caligula's ef- at, mentioned in the fragments of Eschylus, with feminacy, that he sometimes went into public in a several others noted by Lampe in his work De Cym garment of this description. For the literature of balis, but perhaps without sufficient authority. this subject, see Ruperti, ad Juv., vi., 259.

CYMBA (Kuubn) is derived from Kuubos, a hollow, and is employed to signify any small kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &c. It appears to have teen much the same as the axáriov and scapha. (Vid. ACATION.)

CYMBALUM (Kuubaλov), a musical instrument, in the shape of two half globes, which were held, one in each hand, by the performer, and played by being struck against each other. The word is originally Greek, being derived from κúμboç, a hollow, with which the Latin cymba, cymbium, &c., seem to be connected. In Greek it has several other significations, as the cone of a helmet; it is also used for apdavía, the vessel of purification placed at the door of a house where there had been death." Besides this, it is often employed metaphorically for an empty, noisy person, as in 1 Corinthians, xiii., 1, or, as Tiberius Cæsar called Apion the grammarian, Cymbalum mundi.1 In the middle-age Latin it is used for a church or convent-bell, and sometimes for the dome of a church."1

half globes, either running off towards a point so The cymbal was usually made in the form of two as to be grasped by the whole hand, or with a handle It was commonly of bronze, but sometimes of baser material, to which Aristophanes alludes.' The an ancient marble, and given on the authority of subjoined woodcut of a cymbalistria is taken from Lampe. See also the figure in page 189

1. (Plin., H. N., v., 11.-Columell., v., 10.-Ovid, A. A., iii., 703-Billerbeck, Flora Classica, p. 132.)-2. (Prop., IV., vii., 40.)-3. (Lamprid., Alex. Sev., c. 41.)-4. (Juv., vi., 259.)-5. (Suet., Cal., 52.)-6. (Cic., De Off., iii., 14.-En., vi., 303.)7. (Salmas., Exerc. Plin., 385.)-8. (Hesych., s. v.)-9. (Eurip., Alcest., 98.)-10. (Plin in Præf., H N.)-11 (Godin, Descr Soph., 147.)

The cymbal was a very ancient instrument, ooing used in the worship of Cybele, Bacchus, Juno and all the earlier deities of the Grecian and Roman mythology. It probably came from the East, from whence, through the Phoenicians, it was conveyed to Spain. Among the Jews it appears (from 2 Chron., v., 12, 13.-Nehern., xii., 27) to have been an instrument in common use. At Rome we first hear of it in Livy's account of the Bacchic orgies, which were introduced from Etruria.'

For sistrum, which some have referred to the class of cymbala, see SISTRUM.

CYNOCEPHALI (Kvvoκépañol), a fabulous race, with the heads of dogs, mentioned by Pliny and others as dwelling in the interior of Africa. The Cynocephali of the ancients, however, were in reality a species of large baboon, with elongated, doglike head, flat and compressed cheeks, projecting and strong teeth, and a forehead depressed below

1. (Miscell., sec. 1, art. vi.. fig. 44.)-2. (161-164.)-3. (Pol lux, Onom., x., 33.)-4. (Pol., viii., 6.)-5. (s. v.)-6. (a. v 7. (Ranæ, 1305.)-8 (Compare Martial's Betica Cremate 9. (XXXIX., 9.)