and his brother Cadwaladers; he is in great danger the pass of Consilt, near Flint, from the cowardice of Henry, earl of Essex, his standard-bearer, but saves himself by flight.

Henry is a second time crowned, at Worcester, on Christmas-day.

A.D. 1158. Geoffrey, his brother, dies, and Henry obtains possession of Nantes.

Sumerleid again defeats Godred of Man, who in consequence professes himself the tributary of the king of Norway (Magnus V.), and claims his assistance.

A.D. 1159. Henry claims Toulouse, in right of his wife, and lays siege to the city, but without success. He is accompanied by William, the son of Stephen, and Thomas Becket, his chancellor". The king of France (Louis VII.) supports the count of Toulouse, and war ensues.

⚫ Cadwalader lived many years after, detested by his countrymen as an ally of the Normans, and equally distrusted by the latter. At length he was summoned to England to answer certain charges of the Marchers, and was murdered on his return, though under the safe conduct of the king, Sept. 22, 1179.

The battle of Consilt is the theme of a spirited ode by Cynddelw, a cotemporary bard, who, addressing the king, says,

"Knighthood to the generous beast

That saved thee, king, thou owest at least."

This eminent man was born in 1119, his father, Gilbert, being a London trader, and his mother a convert from Mohammedanism, who received at baptism the name of Maud. He was educated at Oxford, and was brought forward by the Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury, who made him his archdeacon, and introduced him to the king; by whom he was named chaplain, but chiefly employed in secular business, acting sometimes as ambassador, sometimes as soldier. His income was great, and he maintained his household in almost regal magnificence, which was made a charge against him when he fell into disgrace; but there is neither evidence nor reasonable suspicion that he had applied the king's treasure to his own Durposes.

A.D. 1160. Peace is made with France, in October. Henry retains his conquests in the south of France, and arranges a marriage between his son Henry and Margaret, the daughter of Louis VII., children of tender age*.

The children are married, by authority of the papal legate, Nov. 2; Henry thus obtains possession of the princess's dower, which gives occasion to a new war.

A council held at Oxford, in which thirty German heretics are condemned; being branded, and driven forth, they perish of hunger.

A.D. 1161. The French are defeated at Chaumont. Peace is made in July, when the kings agree to receive Alexander III. as pope.

Owen Gwynneth ravages South Wales.

A.D. 1162. Thomas Becket is, by the king's command, elected archbishop of Canterbury, May 24, and consecrated on Whit-Sunday, May 27.

The archbishop, shortly after, resigns the chancellorship, which greatly offends the king, who in consequence supports the earl of Clare and others in keeping possession of several manors and castles belonging to the see of Canterbury2.

The princess was placed in the hands of Henry for education, and her dower put in charge of the Templars, to be delivered over on her marriage, which of course was expected to be deferred till the parties were of a suitable age. Henry, however, married them almost immediately, and thus at once obtained the territory, which lay temptingly near his own.

The emperor (Frederick L.) supported a rival pope, who was styled Victor IV.

Almost immediately after his consecration the king became on ill terms with his former favourite; Becket's real offence being, that he would not sacrifice the rights of his new office to preserve the good-will of the courtiers, now no longer his familiar associates.

A.D. 1163. The king returns to England, in January. Henry, earl of Essex, accused of treason at Consilta, is defeated in single combat by Robert de Montfort; his life is thereby forfeited, but he is allowed to become a monk.

An assembly held at Westminster, at which complaints are made of the proceedings of the spiritual courts, and the bishops are required to observe the "customs" used in the time of Henry I.; they promise to do so, "saving the rights of their order," at which the king is displeased.

THE CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON.

A.D. 1164. A council held at Clarendon (near Salisbury), Jan. 25, when certain articles are brought forward by John of Oxford, the king's chaplain, specifying the "customs;" the bishops are compelled by threats of violence to subscribe to them; the archbishop, however, formally retracts his consent.

These articles, known as the Constitutions of Clarendon, are sixteen in number. They are wrongly described as customs of the time of Henry I., for they are opposed in many points to the well-known liberties of the Church in Anglo-Saxon days, which the king and his two immediate predecessors had sworn to observe, and they revive claims which had embroiled Henry I. with Anselm and the popes, and had been formally abandoned. All controversies on ecclesiastical patronage are to be determined in the king's courts; See pp. 162, 172.

⚫ See p. 246.

b

churches in the king's demesne are only to be filled up by him; the clergy, both in person and property, are rendered amenable to the king's courts; they are forbidden to go abroad without his consent, or to appeal to Rome. Vacant bishoprics and other dignities may remain for any length of time in the king's hands; election thereto is only to be by his licence; and homage, fealty, and all other services are due for them as well as for lay fees, except sitting in judgment in matters of life and limb. The spiritual courts are forbidden to proceed to excommunication without the king's consent, all pleas of debt are to be judged only in the king's courts, and church-yards are not to afford shelter for the goods of offenders condemned therein; and, lastly, the ordination of the sons of villeins without their lord's consent is prohibited.

A.D. 1164. A second council is assembled at Northampton, Oct. 12. Many charges are brought against the archbishop, chiefly concerning his administration of the king's treasure while chancellor; he pleads that all such matters had been settled with the king's justiciary before he became archbishop, but is nevertheless condemned in a very large sum, and suspended from his office, when he announces his intention of appealing to the pope, Oct. 18.

The archbishop leaves Northampton in disguise, Oct. 19; travels under the name of "brother Christian,"

The ecclesiastical courts were in the habit of deciding claims of debts, when, as was usually the case, the borrower had sworn to make payment by a certain day; his neglect of his oath was a spiritual offence.

lands at Gravelines, in Flanders, Nov. 3, and finds an asylum at Pontigny, in Burgundy, with the Cistercians. The Welsh, both of the south and the north, carry on the war against the marchers.

A.D. 1165. The king of France protects Becket. Henry invades Wales with a large force, but is unsuccessful, and barbarously hangs many hostages formerly placed in his hands; among others, several children.

The Welsh capture Basingwerk, near Flint, and other castles, but disagreeing about the spoil, their confederacy is broken up.

A.D. 1166. The archbishop excommunicates many of the king's friends, and also such of the bishops and clergy as had agreed to abide by the Constitutions of Clarendon, June 12.

The king banishes the family and friends of the archbishop, to the number of 400, barbarously obliging them to take an oath to repair to him in his exile. He also persecutes the Cistercians for affording him refuge.

A council held at London, which votes an appeal to the pope from the excommunications of the archbishop.

A.D. 1167. The king of France gives shelter to Becket, at Sens. Henry in consequence makes war on him, and captures and destroys the castles of Chaumont, Gisors, and others.

A.D. 1168. Many of the nobles of Britanny, Poitou, and Guienne, join the king of France.

Henry marches against them, subdues them, and destroys their castles.