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liographical Miscellany, intended as a Supplement to the Bibliographical Dictionary (2 vols., 1806); and particularly his Holy Bible, with a Commentary and critical Notes (3 vols., 4to., 1810), which has been often republished. Doctor Clarke died in August, 1832. In figure, he was tall and commanding. His voice had more strength than melody. His style is copious, though not elegant, and his manner was impressive, though not animated. As a preacher, he aimed to convince rather than to excite; and as an author, to edify rather than to delight. As a commentator, he displays great erudition, and, though fanciful, is highly instructive. On account of his biblical learning and scientific acquirements, he obtained a diploma of LL. D., and honorary degrees from various scientific societies.

CLARKE, DUKE OF FELTRE. (See Feltre.)

CLARKSON, Thomas, was born in the year 1761, and had his education at Cambridge (at St. John's college), where he obtained several prizes. When a prize was proposed for the best essay on the question "Is it just to make men slaves against their will?" Mr. Clarkson composed one in Latin, and obtained the first prize for the year 1785. His first publication was a translation of this under the title of an Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, particularly the African (1786). This was, perhaps, the first effectual step taken towards the suppression of the African slave-trade. It seems to have stimulated him to those unparalleled exertions which so materially contributed to that great triumph of humanity, the act of abolition. Warmed by his own work, joined to the writings of Benezet, and to the information he otherwise attained, he became a perfect enthusiast on this subject. He gave up his professional pursuits, although he had already been admitted into deacon's orders in the church, and resolved to devote his whole time to this great object. He therefore first connected himself with Mr. Wilberforce and other members of parliament known for their philanthropy, and, in 1787, formed a small society to effect the abolition of the commerce in African slaves. The next year, he published a work On the Impolicy of the African SlaveTrade, and, in 1789, another work On the comparative Efficacy of the Regulation or Abolition as applied to the African Slave-Trade. He then visited Bristol, Liverpool and Manchester, where, as he

made no secret of his business, he met with many insults from persons concerned in the trade. After his return, he had interviews with Mr. Pitt, who seemed to approve of his zeal, but who did not support him as he ought. This humane cause found many advocates in Great Britain, in Germany, and in France; and Mr. Clarkson, to influence the privy council in the cause, produced before them a box full of various articles, the produce of Africa, to prove that that country was capable of furnishing objects of commerce of an innocent and valuable nature. In the mean time, Mr. Clarkson published, with a view to forward his great design, Letters on the Slave-Trade, and the State of the Nations in those Parts of Africa contiguous to Fort Louis and Goree (1791), and Three Letters to the Planters and Slave Merchants (1807). At one time, Mr. Clarkson had sanguine hopes of procuring an abolition much before he attained it, as the minister appeared favorable, and the friends of the abolition were much increased; but the opposite party, on a motion, in the house of commons, that an abolition of the slavetrade was necessary, had the address to get Mr. Dundas to introduce the word gradual into the motion, and by that means, for a time, defeated the measure. At last the government came into the hands of Mr. Fox and other real friends of the abolition; and the acts of parliament for that great purpose passed with the most triumphant majorities. Clarkson's labors in this good work being now finished, he had leisure for literary pursuits; and, in 1807, he published a Portraiture of Quakerism, in which he describes that respectable and singular people in their true colors, neither supporting their errors nor reflecting on their peculiarities. He has also published Memoirs of the public and private Life of John Penn. In 1808, he published, in two volumes, octavo, the History of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade. Among the Quakers he found the greatest disposition to second his zeal; and many of that sect have emancipated their slaves in various parts of the world.

Mr.

COACH-WHIP SNAKE. (See Serpent.) COLD. (See Freezing, and Temperature.)

COLLARED SNAKE. (See Serpent.) COLOMBO, AMERICAN. (See Frasera Caroliniensis.)

COLOPHONITE. (See Garnet.) COLOSVAR. (See Clausenburg.) COMPLEXION. The human skin, till

the time of Malpighi, was supposed to consist only of two parts-the cuticle, epidermis or scarf-skin, and the cutis or real skin; but that anatomist, about the middle of the seventeenth century, discovered between these a cellular texture, soft and gelatinous, to which the names of rete mucosum and corpus reticulare have been given. He demonstrated the existence of this membrane, at first in the tongue, and in the inner parts of the hands and feet; but, by his subsequent labors, and also by those of Ruysch and other anatomists, it has been proved to exist, between the epidermis and cutis, in all parts of the human body. Malpighi, on the discovery of this membrane, offered a conjecture respecting the cause of the color of negroes. He supposed that this membrane contained a juice or fluid of a black color, from which their blackness arose. The actual existence of a black pigment has been since ascertained, but has never been procured in sufficient quantity to admit of minute and analytical examination. The rete mucosum is of very different colors in different nations; and the difference of its color so completely agrees with the difference of their complexions, that there can be no doubt that it is the sole, or, at least, the principal, seat of the color of the human complexion. Its thickness varies in different parts of the body; and the depth of its color, for the most part, is in proportion to its thickness. The black color of the negroes is destroyed by several causes; indeed, whatever destroys the rete mocosum destroys it, as wounds, burns, &c.; and, as this membrane is never reproduced, the scar remains white ever afterwards. Hawkins (in his Travels into the Interior of Africa, p. 120) mentions that the land-cloud of Africa, called, by the Portuguese, ferrino, changes the black color of the negroes into a dusky gray; according to some other authors, the change is into a red copper color. At Darfur, a species of leprosy prevails among the natives, which they call borras, and which gives them the appearance of being piebald, changing to a white color parts both of their skin and their hair. There are, also, several instances of the color of negroes being either entirely or partially changed, from the operation of causes which cannot be detected or explained. A boy, who was born in Virginia, of black parents, continued of his native color till he was three years old: at that period, a change of color began to take place, though the health of the boy continued

good, and there was no assignable cause for the alteration in his food or mode of life. At first, white specks made their appearance on his neck and breast, which soon increased in number and size; from the upper part of his neck down to his knees, he was completely dappled; his hair was also changed, but not to the same degree, since, though some parts of it were white, in general it retained the black color and crispature of the negro. The color of those parts of his body which had undergone the change was of a more livid white than is found among the fairest Europeans; nor did the flesh and blood appear through these parts of his skin so clear and lively as through the skin of white people. He was not liable to be tanned.-Philosophical Transactions (vol. xix, p. 781). (For the classification of the varieties of the human complexion, see the article Man.)-The nature and color of the hair seem closely connected with the complexion. In proportion to the thinness of the skin, and the fairness of the complexion, the hair is soft, fine, and of a white color: this observation holds good, not only in the great varieties of the human race, but also in the Albinos. Next to them, in fairness of complexion, is the Gothic race, the rutilæ coma of whom were a distinguishing characteristic, even in the time of the Romans. The Celtic tribes are not so fair as the Gothic, and their hair is darker and more inclined to curl; so that the observation which Tacitus makes respecting the Silures still applies to them-Colorati vultus, torti crines. But, though the color of the hair is evidently connected with the complexion, yet its tendency to curl does not appear to be so. The brown-complexioned Celts have curled hair; the Mongolian and American varieties, of a much darker complexion, have hair of a darker color, but long and straight. Among that portion of the Malay variety which inhabits the South sea islands, soft and curled hair is frequently met with. The color of the eye is also connected with the complexion. In the Africans, professor Sömmering remarks that the tunica adnata, or white of the eye, is not so resplendently white as in Europeans, but rather of a yellowish-brown, something similar to what occurs in the jaundice. The iris, in the negroes in general, is of a very dark color; but, according to Pigafetta, the iris in the Congo negro is frequently of a bluish tinge; and it is worthy of remark that, according to this author, these negroes have not the thick

lips of the Nubians. The Gothic tribes are not more distinguished by their fair complexion than by their blue eyes (carulei oculi), while the iris of the darker colored Finn, according to Linnæus, is brown, and that of the still darker Laplander, black. The color of the eyes also follows, in a great degree, in its changes, the variations produced by age in the complexion. Blumenbach informs us that newly-born children, in Germany, have, generally, blue eyes and light hair, both of which become gradually of a darker hue, as the complexion of the individual grows darker; and Ligon, in his True and Exact History of Barbadoes (p. 52), says that the children of the negroes there, when they are born, "have the sight of their eyes of a bluish color, not unlike the eyes of a young kitten; but, as they grow older, they become black." The most singular race of men, in point of complexion, are the Albinos. (See Albi nos.) A middle complexion is produced where children are born from parents of different races. If the offspring of the darkest African and the fairest European intermarry successively with Europeans, in the fourth generation they become white when the circumstances are reversed, the result is reversed also. Along with the successive changes of complexion is also produced a change in the nature and color of the hair; though, in some instances, the woolly hair remains when the complexion has become nearly as fair as that of brown people in Europe. It does not, however, always happen that the offspring is the intermediate color between that of the respective races to which the father and mother belong; it sometimes resembles one parent only, while, perhaps, in the second or third generation, the color of the other parent makes its appearance. White, On the Regular Gradation of Man, mentions a negress who had twins by an Englishman: one was perfectly black; its hair was short, woolly and curled: the other was white, with hair resembling that of an European. And Parsons, in the Philosophical Transactions, gives an account of a black man who married an English woman: the child, the offspring of this marriage, was quite black. The same author gives another instance, still more remarkable: a black, in Gray's inn, mharried a white woman, who bore him a daughter resembling the mother in features, and as fair in all respects, except that the right buttock and thigh were as black as the father's.-Philosophical

Transactions (vol. i, p. 45).—The generally-received opinion, concerning the varieties of complexion, which are found in the different races of man throughout the globe, is, that they are caused entirely by the influence of climate. Respecting the primary color of man, the supporters of this opinion are not agreed. The opinion that climate alone will account for the various complexions of mankind is very plausible, and supported by the well-known facts, that in Europe the complexion grows darker as the climate becomes warmer; that the complexion of the French is darker than that of the Germans, while the natives of the south of France and Germany are darker than those of the north; that the Italians and Spaniards are darker than the French, and the natives of the south of Italy and Spain darker than those in the north. The complexion, also, of the people of Africa and the East Indies is brought forward in support of this opinion; and from these, and similar facts, the broad and general conclusion is drawn, that the complexion varies in darkness as the heat of the climate increases; and that, therefore, climate alone has produced this variety. But it can be shown that the exceptions to this general rule are very numerous; that people of dark complexions are found in the coldest climates, people of fair complexions in warm climates, people of the same complexion throughout a great diversity of climate, and races differing materially in complexion among the same people. 1. In the coldest climates of Europe, Asia and America, we find races of a very dark complexion. The Laplanders have short, black, coarse hair; their skins are swarthy, and the irides of their eyes are black. According to Crantz, the Greenlanders have small, black eyes; their body is dark-gray all over; their face brown or olive; and their hair coal black.-Crantz's History of Greenland (i, 132).—The complexion of the Samoides, and the other tribes who inhabit the north of Asia, and of the Esquimaux, is very similar to that of the Laplanders and Greenlanders. Humboldt's observations on the South American Indians illustrate and confirm the same fact. If climate rendered the complexion of such of these Indians as live under the torrid zone, in the warm and sheltered valleys, of a dark hue, it ought, also, to render, or preserve fair, the complexion of such as inhabit the mountainous part of that country; for, certainly, in point of climate, there must be as much

difference between the heat of the valleys and of the mountains in South America as there is between the temperature of southern and northern Europe; and yet this author expressly assures us, "that the Indians of the torrid zone, who inhabit the most elevated plains of the Cordillera of the Andes, and those who, under the fortyfifth degree of south latitude, live by fishing among the islands of the archipelago of Chonos, have as coppery a complexion as those who, under a burning climate, cultivate bananas in the narrowest and deepest valleys of the equinoctial region.-Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain (i. 14, &c.). He adds, indeed, that the Indians of the mountains are clothed, but he never could observe that those parts which were covered were less dark than those which were exposed to the air. The inhabitants, also, of Terra del Fuego, one of the coldest climates in the world, have dark complexions and hair. 2. Fair complexioned races are found in hot climates. Ulloa informs us that the heat of Guayaquil is greater than at Carthagena; and, by experiment, he ascertained the heat of the latter place to be greater than the heat of the hottest day at Paris; and yet, in Guayaquil, "notwithstanding the heat of the climate, its natives are not tawny :" indeed, they are fresh-colored, and so finely-featured, as justly to be styled the handsomest, both in the province of Quito, and even in all Peru."-Ulloa (i, 171).—" In the forests of Guiana, especially near the sources of the Orinoco, are several tribes of a whitish complexion, the Guiacas, the Guagaribs, and Arigues, of whom several robust individuals, exhibiting no symptom of the asthenical malady which characterizes Albinos, have the appearance of true Mestizos. Yet these tribes have never mingled with Europeans, and are surrounded with other tribes of a darkbrown hue." The inhabitants of Boroa, a tribe in the heart of Araucania, are white, and, in their features and complexion, very like Europeans. Even in Af rica, darkness of complexion does not increase with the heat of the climate in all instances: the existence of comparatively fair races in this quarter of the globe is noticed by Ebn Haukal, an Arabian traveller of the tenth century, and has been confirmed by subsequent travellers. 3. The same complexion is found over immense tracts of country, comprehending all possible varieties of climate. The most striking and decisive instance of this is on the continent of America; all the inhab

itants of which, with the exception of the Esquimaux, exhibit the copper-colored skin, and the long and straight black hair. New Holland is an instance of a similar nature, though on a less extensive scale: over the whole of the island, even in the very cold climate of the southern parts, the complexion of its inhabitants is of a deep black, and their hair is curled like that of negroes. 4. Different complexions are found under the same physical latitude, and among the same people. Illustrations and proofs of this have already been given. The physical latitude in which the Norwegians, the Icelanders, the Finns and the Laplanders live, scarcely differs; and yet their complexions, and the color of their eyes and hair, are widely different. There is a great diversity of color and features among the Morlachi, who inhabit Dalmatia. The inhabitants of Kotar, and of the plains of Seigu, and Knin, have fair blue eyes, broad face, and flat nose. Those of Duare and Vergoraz, on the contrary, have dark-colored hair; their face is long, their complexion tawny, and their stature tall.-Fortis's Travels in Dalmatia (p. 51).-M. Sauchez, who travelled among the Tartars in the southern provinces of Russia, describes a nation, called the Kabendedski, as having countenances as white and fresh as any in Europe, with large black eyes.-Smellie's Philosophy of Natural History (ii, p. 167).—The inhabitants in the neighborhood of the cape of Good Hope differ in their complexions much more than in the nature of the climate under which they respectively live. The Caffres are black; the Bush wanas of a bronze color; and the Hottentots a light brown, or brownish-yellow. In the island of Madagascar there are three races, distinctly marked. The first are black, with frizzled hair, supposed to be the original inhabitants of the island. The second race inhabit the interior provinces: they are tawny, and have long hair, like the Malays. The third race reside near Fort Daupliris, and on the west coast: they are supposed to be descended from some shipwrecked Arabs, and retain a resemblance to that nation.-Sonnerat's Voyages to the East Indies and China (translated from the French, iii. p. 30).-People with the negro complexion and features are also found in the interior of the Philippine islands; and in Java, the Hindoo and Malay character may be clearly traced in the complexion and features of the two classes of inhabitants which are found in that island. In several of the Moluccas is a race of men who

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are blacker than the rest, with woolly hair, inhabiting the interior hilly parts of the country. The shores of these islands are peopled by another nation, whose individuals are swarthy, with curled long hair. In the interior hilly parts of Formosa, the inhabitants are brown, frizzlehaired, and broad-faced, while the Chinese occupy the shores. Forster observes that there are two great varieties of people in the South seas; the one more fair, the other blacker, with their hair just beginning to be woolly and crisp. The first race inhabits Otaheite and the Society isles, the Marquesas, the Friendly isles, Easter island, and New Zealand; the second race peoples New Caledonia, Tanna, and the New Hebrides, especially Mallicolo. If we examine the relative situation and latitudes of these islands on a map, we shall be convinced, not only that darker complexioned people are found where the climate is comparatively colder, but that the same complexion is found under very different latitudes. It is not meant to be denied that a burning climate will render the complexion very dark, and that a climate of less extreme heat will bronze the complexion of the fairest European; but there are some material points, in which the dark complexion of the Caucasian, or naturally fair-skinned variety of mankind, caused by climate, differs from the dark complexion of all the other varieties of the human race. 1. The offspring of the Caucasian variety is born fair; the offspring of the other varieties is born of the respective complexion of their parents. Ulloa informs us that the children born in Guayaquil of Spanish parents are very fair.-Ulloa (i, 171).-The same is the case in the West Indies. Long, in his History of Jamaica, expressly affirms, "that the children born in England have not, in general, lovelier or more transparent skins than the offspring of white parents in Jamaica." But it may be urged, that this is not the case with respect to the other nations of the Caucasian variety, who have been settled in warm climates from time immemorial, and that the question ought to be decided by the Moors, Arabians, &c. Their children, however, are also born fair-complexioned, as fair as the children of Europeans, who live under a cold climate. Russell informs us that the inhabitants of the country round Aleppo are naturally of a fair complexion, and that women of condition, with proper care, preserve their fair complexion to the last. -Russell's Aleppo (i, 99).—The children

of the Moors, according to Shaw, have the finest complexions of any nation whatsoever; and the testimony of Poiret is directly to the same effect:-"The Moors are not naturally black, but are born fair, and when not exposed to the heat of the sun, remain fair during their lives.-Shaw (p. 304); and Poiret's Voyage en Barbarie (i, 31).-2. Individuals belonging to the Caucasian variety, that inhabit warm countries, preserve their native fairness of complexion if they are not exposed to the influence of the climate; while there is a uniform black color over all the parts of a negro's body. The hue which Europeans assume is the same, though the tinge may be lighter or darker, whether they settle in Africa, the East Indies, or South America. They do not become, like the natives of those countries, black, olive-colored, or coppercolored: their complexion merely resembles that of a tanned person in this country, only of a darker tinge. The negroes that are settled in the West Indies, or America, do not assume the copper color of the Indians, even though a milder climate may have some effect on the darkness of their complexions. The children of Europeans, of negroes, and of Indians, are all born, in America, of the same reddish hue; but, in a few days, those of the negro begin to assume the black complexion of their parents, those of the Indian the copper complexion, while those of the European either continue fair, if kept from the influence of the sun, or become tanned; not black like the negro, or copper-colored like the Indian, if exposed to its influence. Europeans who settle in Canada, or in the northern parts of America, where the climate resembles that of their native country, do not assume the complexion of the Indians, but continue fair like their ancestors. The same observation may be made respecting the Russians, who are settled among the Mongolian variety, in those parts of the Russian empire in Asia the climate of which resembles the middle or northern parts of European Russia. Indeed, the wide extent of country over which the Mongolian variety is spread, including the extreme cold of Lapland, and the north of Asia, the mild temperature of the middle parts of that continent, and the warmth of the southern parts of China, is, in itself, a proof that dark complexion does not arise either from the influence of heat or cold.-Lastly, radical varieties of complexion are always accompanied with radical varieties of

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