by the hetara, who were often highly distinguished for their talents and accomplishments. (See Hetara.) Among the celebrated women of this class are Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, Lais, Phryne, and others. (See Böttiger's History of the Female Sex, in the 2d and 3d volumes of the Attisches Museum.) The Lacedæmonian women observed fashions quite different from their neighbors: their virgins went abroad barefaced, while the married women covered themselves with veils; the former designing to get husbands, the latter aiming to keep those they had. The Spartan maidens, says Plutarch (Life of Lycurgus), exercised themselves in running, wrestling, throwing quoits, casting darts, that they might be more healthy and vigorous; and they were also accustomed to dance naked at solemn feasts and sacrifices. When, however, the laws of Lycurgus were neglected, and the Spartans degenerated from the strict virtue of their forefathers, these practices contributed to render the prevailing licentiousness more universal. The Romans were, in many respects, in advance of their more polished neighbors in the treatment of their women. The Roman women appeared more in society: they were allowed to be present at feasts and entertainments, and at public spectacles, and, in general, associated more with men than the Grecian women. They took a more active part in public matters; and the institution of the vestal virgins has no example in the manners of the Greeks. Hence we find many models of true feminine greatness among the Roman women. In the period of the republic, they lived, however, considerably retired, occupied with domestic labors, and the education of their children, and distinguished for simplicity of appearance and rigid virtue. But with the increase of wealth, luxury and corruption, a great change took place ;` and, if Cornelia may be considered the representative of free and virtuous Rome, Messalina must be regarded as the emblem of the polluted epoch of the empire. The influence of Christianity gave woman a new station in society, broke her chains, and released her from the odious and degrading restrictions in which she had almost become the soulless thing which she had been represented to be. As man ceased to be a mere citizen of his own country, and felt himself to be a citizen of the world, so woman was restored to her natural rights. Other causes cooperated with the spirit of Christianity to establish a just and true equality of the

sexes. The German or Teutonic nations were the first who led the way in this revolution; and Tacitus remarked upon the estimation in which the female sex was held among them. The age of chivalry shows the effect of these two influences,mutually contributing to each other's developement; and the whole of Europe soon experienced the operation of these causes. In fact, the very peculiarities of the Christian religion, its spirit of love, of tenderness, and of charity, wholly unknown to the ancient nations, led to a submission of physical force and intellectual vigor to feelings of kindness and affection. "In every age and country," says Gibbon, "the wiser, or at least the stronger, of the two sexes has usurped the powers of the state, and confined the other to the cares and pleasures of domestic life. In hereditary monarchies, however, and especially in those of modern Europe, the gallant spirit of chivalry, and the law of succession, have accustomed us to allow a singular exception; and a woman is often acknowledged the absolute sovereign of a great kingdom, in which she would be deemed incapable of exercising the smallest employment, civil or military. But, as the Roman emperors were still considered as the generals and magistrates of the republic, their wives and mothers, although distinguished by the name of Augusta, were never associated to their personal honors; and a female reign would have appeared an inexpiable prodigy in the eyes of those primitive Romans who married without love, or loved without delicacy and respect." The exaggerated spirit of adulation which prevailed in the age of chivalry, was yet far from giving the female sex its true position; and the age of frivolous gallantry which succeeded it, was a natural result of the former. It is by observing a proper medium between servitude and deifica tion, by treating the sex as women, and not as slaves or goddesses, by cultivating their minds and hearts, as well as by adorning them with the graceful accomplishments, that our own times have, in some measure, restored this part of our race to their rights and duties. (Consult, on this subject, Alexander's History of Women (2 vols., 4to., 1779); and Ségur, Les Femmes (3 vols., 1802); see, also, our articles Husband and Wife, Marriage, Polygamy, and Divorce.)

Woman, in physiology. Besides the difference of the sexual organs, the woman exhibits other peculiar characters, which distinguish the sexes. In the fo

male, the head is smaller, the chest narrower, the pelvis broader, the limbs more delicately formed and more rounded, and the gait peculiar, on account of the breadth of the pelvis. The skin is soft, the hair of the head finer and longer, the muscular system little developed, the voice an octave higher than that of the male, and the nervous system predominating: their sensibility is consequently greater than that of the other sex. The rounded form and brilliant whiteness which characterize females are owing to the peculiarity of their lymphatic and cellular systems; and, their sanguineous system being less vigorous than in man, they are less liable to acute inflammations. Born to feel and to inspire the kind and tender affections, they are exempt from the gloomy and fierce passions which characterize the bilious temperament; and love, jealousy, and maternal affection, are the deepest springs of emotion in the female heart. Their delicate and peculiar organization modifies the general course of disease with them, and renders them liable to some from . which the other sex is exempt. The period of puberty is more often attended by disease in the female sex. It is characterized by the developement of the breasts, and other physical changes, together with a general revolution in the tastes and feelings of the individual. (See Puberty, and Catamenia.) Ripe for the burden of maternity, the woman becomes a mother only through sufferings and pangs. The mother is exposed to yet new maladies as a nurse; and, when nature calls the child to other sources of nourishment (see Weaning), to new cares and precautions for herself and her infant. Having passed these successive periods of life, at the age of forty-five or fifty, another change of the system succeeds, attended with so many dangers, that this epoch has received the name of the "critical age." The physical changes which now take place are often accompanied with an unfavorable moral change, and both combine to render more dangerous the maladies to which this period is particularly liable. Great care should now be taken to be warmly clothed, to avoid violent excitements, to enjoy pure and wholesome air; and, this period passed, the health becomes confirmed, and life is often prolonged to an advanced age.

WOMB. (See Uterus.) WONDERS OF THE WORLD, SEVEN. (See Seven Wonders.)

WOOD. (For the structure of wood,

see the article Plants; for the use of wood as fuel, see Fuel.) We shall now give the character of some of the principal sorts of wood used in the arts. The part preceding the account of the fancy woods is taken from Bigelow's Technology.-Oak. Numerous species of the oaktree are found in the U. States. They are generally distinguished for great strength, but are coarse-grained and prone to warp and crack, under changes from moisture to dryness. The live oak of the Southern States (quercus virens) is prized in shipbuilding beyond any native timber. The white oak (quercus alba) is employed for the keels, side-timbers and planks of vessels, also for frames of houses, mills, and machinery requiring strength; for wagons, parts of carriages, ploughs, and other agricultural instruments. Large quantities are consumed for the staves and hoops of casks, for which they furnish one of the best materials. The bark of the black oak (quercus tinctoria) furnishes the quercitron used by dyers. Most of the species of oak are employed in tanning, and they all furnish a valuable fuel.-Hickory, or Walnut. The wood of the different species of native walnut or hickory (juglans or carya) is eminently distinguished for weight, tenacity and strength. It has, however, important defects. It warps and shrinks greatly, decays rapidly when exposed to the weather, and is very liable to the attacks of worms. On these accounts, it is never used for house or ship building, but is chiefly employed for minor purposes, where strength is the chief requisite, as in the teeth of mill-wheels, screws of presses, handspikes, capstan bars, bows, hoops, and handles of tools. As fuel, the hickory stands at the head of native trees, and commands a higher price than any other wood.-Ash. The white ash (fraxinus Americana), and some other species, are of great utility in the arts. Ash wood is strong, elastic, tough and light, and splits with a straight grain. It is also durable, and permanent in its dimensions. It furnishes the common timber used in light carriages, for the shafts, frames, springs, and part of the wheels. Flat hoops, boxes, and the handles of many instruments, are made of it. It is almost the only material of oars, blocks of pulleys, cleats, and similar naval implements, in places where it can be obtained.-Elm. The common American elm (ulmus Americana) is valued for the toughness of its wood, which does not readily split. On this account, it is chiefly used for the

naves, among us commonly called hubs, of carriage-wheels.-Locust. The common locust (robinia pseudacacia) is one of the hardest, strongest, and most valuable of our native trees. The larger pieces of its timber are used in ship-building, and the smaller pieces are in great request to form the treenails* or pins which confine the planks to the timbers. This tree is liable, in the Northern States, to be perforated by an insect, so that it is often difficult to procure sound pieces of any considerable size. Locust wood is exceedingly durable, when exposed to the weather, and forms excellent fuel.-Wild cherry-tree. The wood of this tree (prunus Virginiana) is of a deep color, hard, durable, and, when properly seasoned, very permanent in its shape and dimensions. In the manufacture of cabinet work, it is much used as a cheap substitute for mahogany. On the western rivers, it is sometimes used in ship-building.-Chestnut. The American chestnut (castanea vesca) is a large tree of rapid growth. Its wood is coarse and porous, very liable to warp, and seldom introduced into building or furniture. It is chiefly used for fencing stuff, to which use it is fitted by its durability in the atmosphere. Chest nut is an unsafe fuel, in consequence of its tendency to snap, and throw its coals to a distance.-Beech. The wood of the red beech (fagus ferruginea) is liable to decay when exposed to alternate moisture and dryness. It does not, however, readily warp, and, being smooth-grained, it is used for some minor purposes, such as the making of planes, lasts and cardbacks. It forms a very good fuel.-Basswood. The American linden or bass-woodtree (tilia Americana) produces a finegrained wood, which is very white, soft, light and flexible. It is sometimes employed for furniture, but its chief use is to form the panels of coach and chaise bodies, for which its flexibility makes it well suited.-Tulip-tree (liriodendron tulipifera). The boards of this tree are sold under the name of white-wood, and erroneously under that of poplar. Its wood is smooth, fine-grained, easily wrought, and not apt to split. It is used for carving and ornamental work, and for some kinds of furniture. In the Western States, where pine is more scarce, the joinery, or inside work of houses, is commonly executed with this material, and sometimes the outer covering. In common with bass-wood, it forms an excellent material for coach and chaise panCommonly pronounced trunnels. 21

VOL. XIII.

els.-Maple. The rock maple (acer saccharinum), and several other species, afford wood which is smooth, compact and hard. It is much used for cabinet furniture, and is a common material for gun-stocks. The wood in some of the old trunks is full of minute irregularities, like knots. These, if cut in one direction, exhibit a spotted surface, to which the name of bird's eye maple is given; while, if cut in another direction, they produce a wavy or shaded surface, called curled maple. This last effect, however, is more frequently produced by a mere serpentine direction of the fibres. The distinctness of the grain may be increased by rubbing the surface with diluted sulphuric acid. Maple wood forms a good fuel. It is not very lasting when exposed to the weather. The sap of the rock maple, and of one or two other species, yields sugar on being boiled.-Birch. The white or paper birch (betula papyracea) has properties similar to those of the maple, and is appropriated to the same uses. Its cuticle or outer bark is made, by the Indians, into canoes. The lesser white birch (B. populifolia) is a perishable tree of little value. The black birch (B. lenta), known for its aromatic bark, affords a firm, compact, dark-colored wood, much valued for furniture, and sometimes used for screws and implements requiring strength. The yellow birch (B. lutea) is applied to the same uses as the last, and makes good fuel.Button-wood. The button-wood or planetree (platanus occidentalis) is, in some of the Northern States, improperly called sycamore. It is one of the largest inhabitants of the forest; and Michaux states that trees are found in the Western States which measure forty feet in circumference. This majestic tree is chiefly valuable for its shade, as the wood is perishable and prone to warp.-Persimmon (diospyros Virginiana). The heart wood is dark-colored, compact, hard and elastic, and is used, in the Southern States, for screws, shafts of chaises, and various implements. Black walnut (juglans nigra). This tree is rarely found north of New York. Its heart wood is of a violet color, which, after exposure to the air, assumes a darker shade, and finally becomes nearly black. This wood, when deprived of its white part or sap, remains sound for a long time, even if exposed to air and moisture, and is not attacked by worms. It is very strong and tenacious, and, when seasoned, is not liable to warp or split. It is used, in the Middle and

Western States, for furniture, for gun stocks, for naves of wheels, and, to a certain extent, in house and ship building. -Tupelo. Different species of the genus nyssa have received, in the U. States, a great variety of common names, among which tupelo, pepperidge and gum-tree are the most common. In Massachusetts, the name hornbeam is improperly applied to one of them. Their wood is smooth-grained, and remarkable for the decussation, or interweaving of the fibres, which renders it almost impossible to split the logs. This quality causes several of the species to be in demand for naves of wheels, hatters' blocks, and implements requiring lateral tenacity.-Pine. The American pines exceed all other native trees for the value and variety of their uses. The white pine (pinus strobus) has a very tall, straight trunk, the wood of which is light, soft, homogeneous, and easy to work. It is remarkably exempt from the common fault of timber-that of decaying in the open air, and of changing its dimensions with changes of weather. On these accounts, it is extensively employed for most of the common purposes of timber. In the Northern States, masts of vessels are commonly made of it. Frames of houses and of bridges are also formed of it; its defect of strength being more than balanced by its steadiness and durability. Its boards form almost the only material used in the Northern States for the joiner's work, or inside finishing of houses; and for this use it is exported to other countries. Ornamental carving is commonly executed on this material. The southern pitch pine (pinus palustris, L.) covers extensive barrens in the Southern States, and yields vast quantities of tar and turpentine. Its wood is appropriated to the same objects as that of the white pine, but is harder and stronger, and therefore preferred for planks, spars, floors, decks, &c. Many other species of pine exist on this continent, partaking qualities like those already described, but most of them harder than the white pine.-Spruce. The black and white spruce belong to the race of trees commonly called firs. They are both valuable, but the black spruce (pinus nigra) unites, in a peculiar degree, the qualities of strength, elasticity and lightness, together with the power of resisting exposure to the weather. It is much sought after for the smaller spars of vessels, such as the booms, yards and topmasts.-Hemlock. The hemlock-tree (pinus Canadensis) is inferior to the other firs in quality, though it grows to a large

size. It is coarse-grained, often twisted, and cracks and shivers with age. It furnishes an inferior sort of boards, used in covering houses. Its bark is valuable in tanning.-White cedar. This tree (cupressus thuyoides) occupies large tracts denominated cedar swamps. The wood is soft, smooth, of an aromatic smell, and internally of a red color. It is permanent in shape, and very durable, and esteemed as a material for fences. Large quantities of shingles are made of it. It is a favorite material for wooden wares, or the nicer kinds of coopers' work.-Cypress. The cypress-tree of the Southern States (cupressus disticha) is light, soft and finegrained, and, at the same time, elastic, with a considerable share of strength. It sustains heat and moisture for a long time without injury. In the Southern States, and on the Mississippi, it is much employed for fences, and for the frames, shingles, and inside work of houses.

Larch. The American larch (pinus microcarpa) is called hackmatack and tamarack in different parts of the Union. Its wood is strong, elastic and durable, and is highly prized, in places where a sufficient quantity can be obtained, for naval and civil architecture.-Arbor vita. This tree (thuya occidentalis) is of the middle size, and frequently called white cedar. The wood is reddish, fine-grained, very soft and light. It bears exposure to the weather with very little change, and is esteemed for the posts and rails of fences.-Red Cedar (juniperus Virginiana). The name of savin is in some places improperly applied to this tree. Unlike the white cedar, it grows in the driest and most barren soils. The trunk is straight, and knotted by small branches. The heart wood is of a bright-red color, smooth, and moderately soft. It exceeds most other native trees in durability, and is in particular request for posts of buildings, though it is difficult to obtain it of large size.—Willow. The most common kinds of salix or willow about our seaports are European species which have become naturalized. Their wood is soft, light and spongy. Willow charcoal is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. The osier, and some other species, with long, slender shoots, are extensively cultivated to form wicker work, such as baskets, hampers, and the external coverings of heavy glass vessels. -Mahogany. In the manufacture of cabinet furniture, mahogany (swietenia mahagoni) has taken precedence of all other kinds of wood. Its value depends not so much on its color as on its hard

ness, and the invaluable property of remaining constant in its dimensions, with out warping or cracking, for an indefinite length of time. The same qualities which render it suitable for furniture have given rise to its employment for the frames of philosophical instruments, and of delicate machinery. Mahogany is imported from the West Indies and different parts of Spanish America.-Borwood. The box-tree (buxus sempervirens) is imported from the south of Europe. Its wood is of a well-known yellowish color, hard, compact, smooth, tough, and not liable to crack. Musical wind instruments are commonly made of it; also mathematical measuring instruments. The handles of many tools, and various articles of turners' work, consist also of this material. Wood engravings are cut upon the end of the grain of box-wood.-Lignum vitæ. The wood of the guaiacum officinale is employed in the arts under this name. It is dark-colored at the heart, strong, exceedingly hard, and so heavy as to sink in water. It is impregnated with resin, and, on this account, durable in liquids. Handles of tools, boxes of gudgeons, wheels of pulleys, castors, balls, stopcocks, mallets, &c., are made of it. It is imported from the West Indies and South America.-We shall now give an account of some of the principal woods used in cabinet work, taken from the Library of Entertaining Knowledge.

Fancy Woods. Even at a comparatively early stage of the arts, mankind appear to have made use of the bright or variegated colors of wood, to give beauty both to their dwellings and their furniture. The temple built by king Solomon was overlaid, on the inside, with boards of cedar-"all was cedar; there was no stone seen"-and, among the most ancient specimens of ornamental furniture that are to be met with, we find that attempts have been made to heighten the effect by the contrast of various kinds of wood. Though, both in the materials and the designs, these are inferior to the productions of modern art, many of the cabinets which are still preserved have much higher claims to notice than their mere antiquity. In all these works, a veneer, or thin plate of the fancy wood, is laid down in glue upon a surface of a plainer description. This process is, of course, cheaper than if the whole work were made of the solid fancy wood. The beauty of fancy wood arises, in many sorts, from its being cross-grained, or presenting the fibres endways or obliquely to the surface. These different positions of

the fibres, as well as their different colors in grained woods, give a clouded and mottled variety to the surface; and, when some of the parts are partially transparent, as is the case with fine mahogany, the surface gives out a play of different tints, as the observer shifts his place, or the light falls upon them, and, consequently, is reflected at different angles. When mahogany was first introduced as a cabinet timber, it seems to have been in the dark-colored, hard, and straight-grained trees, which are now used for chairs and other articles, in which the solid timber is preferred; and, on that account, mahogany was not much used in combination with other woods. When, however, its great value was known—the ease with which it can be cut, the improvement that varnish gives to its colors, the firmness with which it holds in glue, and the improvement which, when properly taken care of, it gains in time-it was found that good mahogany was much too valuable a timber for being used solid, and it began to be employed as the staple timber in veneering. Other foreign woods, some of them lighter and others darker, were employed for borders and ornaments; but mahogany was used for the body of the work; and when it came to be so used, a great revolution was effected in the art of cabinet-making. On the first introduction of mahogany, the same process was resorted to, that had before been practised with the walnut and other woods, and effect was sought to be produced by quartering panels, forming them of gyrony* of sectors, with the grain in opposite directions, and other fantastic and unnatural arrangements; but, in course of time, a better taste was introduced, and the object was to make the whole surface have the same appearance as if the work had been made solid out of the rich timber. This was one step toward the attainment of a purer style; but the continuity of the surface was still interrupted by ill-sorted additions. The breadth of the mahogany, which would in itself have been beautiful, was broken by bands and strings of other wood, without much regard to the harmony of the colors; and thus that which, with the veneer alone, would have been chaste and classical, was reduced to a piece of patchwork. The veneering, whether done in mahogany or any other wood, was, at first, very expensive. The veneers were cut by the hand; and thus the piece cut off

* A term of heraldry, in which a shield is formed in sectors from the centre.