to a particular province of the imagination, with which, however, it is often frequently confounded in loose and inaccurate language, and to which it is employed as equivalent. Imagination differs from conception either by the greater distinctness and vividness of its images, or else by combining the manifold materials of experience into a new and true unity. In the former case it is merely reproductive; in the latter creative, and becomes fancy :—

"Of all external things

Which the five watchful senses represent
She forms imaginations, aeric shapes."

MILTON, Par. Lost, v.

Fancy is a higher energy of the mental activity than imagination simply, but is nevertheless dependent upon it, since it is the imagination that furnishes the materials out of which it creates its phantasies either by modifying or exaggerating them, or by forming new combinations, and by a prosopopoeia investing its personification with the properties of real beings. Imagination is necessary to authors generally, but both imagination and fancy to the poet; the latter presenting him with those lofty speculations which comprise what has been termed the ideal of art, and furnishing the link for that enchainment of his ideas which, rejecting the restraint of all general laws, is wholly dependent upon the peculiarities of the poet's mental temperament. FANDANGO, a quick dance in 3 org time, much admired and practised in Spain, and supposed to be of Moorish origin; though Volney ascribes a far higher antiquity to it, believing it to have come originally from Carthage, and thence by way of Rome into Spain. The probability however is that it was brought into Europe by the Arabians, to whom certainly it may have been transmitted from remote ages. Like many other dances, this is performed with more or less propriety according to the degree of delicacy possessed by those who practise it.

FARM. A farm is a portion of land which is set apart for cultivation either by the proprietor or by a tenant who pays a certain stipulated rent for it. We shall consider it in this latter sense; and, without entering into the mode of cultivation, we shall notice the circumstances which determine the profit that a tenant may reasonably expect to make in return for his trouble and outlay.

The first thing to be considered in taking a farm is the capital which the tenant is possessed of, or of which he can procure the use at a reasonable rate. If a man takes a farm without the means of stocking it properly, and is restrained in his first outlay, he will never be able to cultivate it with benefit to himself cr to his landlord: he will be obliged to sell his produce at a loss, to over-work his cattle, and to keep a smaller quantity of stock, and consequently make less manure than is required to keep the farm in a productive state. It is not sufficient that he has the means of stocking the farm; he must have wherewith to pay the greater part of the whole expenses and the rent for the first year. In the present state of agriculture, a man who takes a farm of 200 acres of arable land, or land partly arable and partly good pasture, will require from 1600l. to 20007.; and it is not the interest, either of the landlord or the tenant, that he should take the farm unless he can command that sum. The amount of capital required depends to some extent on the quality of the land; very rich land may require less capital in proportion to the rent than poor land, especially if the poor land requires draining, chalking, or marling, before it will produce any tolerable crops. Nevertheless, the capital required may under certain styles of cultivation be in proportion to its fertility, for when grazing is the rule, the stock needed will be in proportion to the quantity of food to be consumed. All these circumstances must be taken into consideration before a farm is hired.

When it is ascertained what extent of farm may be safely undertaken with a given capital, the most important object to be attended to is the condition and fertility of the soil, not only with respect to the natural quality of the land, but the actual state it is left in by the preceding system of cultivation. A moderately fertile soil, in good condition, will give a greater profit for several years than a better soil which is partially exhausted and rendered foul by injudicious management and over-cropping. For this purpose it is necessary to ascertain what has been the state of the crops for several years before, how the land has been ploughed, and whether the crops have been heavy with or without manure. There is no method yet found out of fully ascertaining the comparative value of land which has been exhausted. It would be a question well worth the investigation of modern chemists, who have made such progress lately in the analysis of vegetable substances, and would be invaluable to farmers and proprietors of land. In the mean time the nature of the weeds which abound on the land will give some clue to its state; and an experienced person will collect from various minute appearances in the soil whether it has been fairly managed or exhausted. It is in general more advantageous to take a farm in a district with which you are well acquainted. It will be a great advantage if you have had an opportunity of seeing the land at all times, observing it in different seasons and states of the weather, and especially of seeing the crops threshed out, and ascertaining the quantity of corn which is usually yielded from a certain quantity of straw, for lands very similar in outward appearance will produce a very different return when the crops are threshed out. A want of attention to these circumstances is the cause that a man who comes from a

distant part of the country and hires a farm on his own judgment seldom succeeds so well as might be expected, even with a superior knowledge of agriculture. He naturally compares the soil with some similar soil which he has been acquainted with. If he comes from a district where the soil is sandy, and where clay is in request, he will give the preference to very stiff loams; if he comes from a cold wet clay, he will prefer the sands; and the chances are, that he is mistaken in his judgment, and finds it out when he has already embarked his capital in a losing concern.

Next to the nature of the soil is to be considered the convenient situation of the farm, the disposition of the fields, and the adaptation of the farm buildings to the most profitable occupation of the land. The roads, especially those which lead to neighbouring towns, whence manure may be obtained, are a most important object; and if there is water-carriage, it greatly enhances the value of the farm. The roads to the fields, and the distance of these from the farm-yard; the convenience of having good pasture, or land easily laid down to grass, near the homestead, and especially the situation of the farm-buildings with respect to the land, and the abundance of good water, are all circumstances which must be well considered, and which will greatly influence the probable profits, and consequently the rent which may be fairly offered. A central situation is no doubt the most advantageous for the farm-buildings, as greatly diminishing the labour in harvest and in carrying out manure. But there may be circumstances which render some spot nearer the extremity of the land more eligible, and it is only when entirely new buildings are to be erected that there is a choice. The old farm-buildings are generally in low and sheltered situations, but it is a great inconvenience to have to carry the manure, which is the heaviest thing carted on a farm, up a steep hill. The best situation is on a moderate slope, neither in the lowest nor highest ground. The disposition of the buildings is of great importance both to the landlord and tenant. Large straggling buildings are inconvenient, and cost much in repairs. The house should be neat and comfortable, fit for the residence of a farmer who has a capital such as the farm requires. The rooms should be airy and healthy, facing the south, with a neat garden in front of the house. When the farmery is connected with the farm-house, there should be near the latter and the farm-yard a small paved court separated from the yard by a low wall. In this court, which should communicate with the dairy, the utensils may be placed on proper benches to air and dry in the sun. architecture of the buildings may be left to the taste of the proprietor or his architect. The simpler it is, the more appropriate. The plan of having large yards as the main feature of the arrangement-these yards to be surrounded by the necessary buildings-is a bad one, but where it prevails they should be sheltered on the north side by the barns, which need not be so extensive as used formerly to be thought necessary. There must be a threshing machine; and a single floor to thresh the seeds upon, and to employ the men occasionally in winter, is quite sufficient. Every farm which is so extensive as to require more than one floor to thresh the corn on ought always to have a threshing-mill attached to it. [HOMESTEAD.]

The

Yards with sheds for the cattle to shelter themselves under in wet and stormy weather, are a great advantage, and may be added at a trifling expense to any set of farm-buildings.

For a small occupation, where the tenant is but a little above the rank of a day labourer, a set of buildings all under one roof, and forming the longer side of a yard, which may have open sheds round it, is at once convenient and economical. If this building is thought too long, it can very easily be divided into two, which may be placed at right angles to each other and form two sides (N. and E.) of a square. The farm-house and cow-house might form one side, and the stables and barns the other. This is the more common distribution in Flanders.

For a fuller reference to the subject of farm-buildings, we must refer the reader to the article HOMESTEAD. A principal thing to be attended to is to have plenty of room for cattle; and where old barns remain much larger than is required according to the present mode of stacking corn in the yard, they can be very advantageously converted into cow-stalls or ox-stables. Where many sheep are kept, it is of great advantage to have a sheep-yard, with low sheds all round, at the time when the ewes lamb, especially when the season is wet and chilly, which hurts them more than a dry frost.

In valuing the rent of a farm the habitation of the farmer is seldom taken into account, and it ought not to be above the station of the tenant; but the buildings immediately connected with the cultivation necessarily add to the rent or diminish it, as they add to or diminish the profit.

The next important question is what may be a fair rent both to the landlord and the tenant. This depends as much on the mode of cultivation adopted as on the fertility of the soil. The tenant must have a fair interest for his capital, and a fair remuneration for his trouble. In the old system a third of the gross average produce was considered as a fair rent, including all the direct payments for the occupation of the land, such as tithes, rates, and taxes; another third was supposed to cover the labour and expenses of the farm and interest of capital; and the remaining third was appropriated to the maintenance of the farmer and his family, out of which he had to save

upon.

whatever he laid by as a clear profit. But this calculation is no longer applicable to the present state of agriculture. The expenses are greatly increased, and the produce is also greater. It requires a greater capital, and more skill to manage a large farm. The tenant is a man of more liberal education, and his habits are more expensive. The occupier of 500 acres of land in England expects to live as well as a land-owner of 500l. a year income. He cultivates better by applying more labour, and much of the produce is owing to his skill and his capital. He therefore expects a greater share of the produce than the landlord, not only to repay his outlay, which is greater, but to live In Scotland, it is notorious that rents are much higher than in England, not only for small occupations, but for extensive farms; and that the tenants have complained less of the times than their neighbours in the south. It may be worth while to inquire into the cause of this, for the low price of corn must affect the Scotch farmer equally with the English. One great difference between the Scotch and the English farmer is, that the former gets work done at a cheaper rate than the latter. The Scotch labourer is fully as well fed, and clothed, and lodged, as the English; but he has less money to spend at the alehouse. He is paid, not in a certain sum every Saturday, but in comforts, in the keep of a cow, in a certain number of rows of potatoes, a certain quantity of grain, a cottage to live in, and oatmeal to feed his family; and above all, as a general rule it must be admitted that he is a man of greater intelligence. The horses of a Scotch farmer are well fed; they are always in good condition. They work ten hours in a day at two yokings. All this is worth 25 per cent. on the whole labour of the farm, as Arthur Young has very judiciously calculated, when he gives the expense of labour on the farm of a gentleman, compared with that on the land of a farmer who works with his men. (See Farmer's Guide.') The moral effect of an interest in the work to be done, when opposed to that of a perfectly distinct and often hostile interest, will readily account for so great a difference.

But besides this the Scotch farmer has perhaps more commonly than the English man the advantage of a scientific education, and of a knowledge of the principles of his profession; and with the shrewdness peculiar to his country, he knows how to take advantage of every favourable circumstance. He has also been taught to calculate, and will soon discover where there is a profit or a loss. All this has kept up rents to a much higher level than in England. The price of agricultural produce throughout Great Britain, and even Ireland, is brought very nearly to an equality, the only difference being occasioned by the means of transport. But the price of labour still varies much, and this is owing to local circumstances, which it is hoped will gradually cease.

Farm Accounts.-In proportion as the management of a farm requires more skill, and the various operations become more complicated, so the necessity of great accuracy in the accounts becomes more evident. The manner in which farm accounts should be kept deserves therefore particular attention.

Many farmers, who are not devoid of intelligence, and who are anxious to ascertain their gain or their loss in cultivating the land which they have hired, have no other means of ascertaining this than the balance of their account of receipts and expenditure. If they have separated the accounts of their private establishment from that of their farm, they think that they have done all that is required, and at the end of the year they can tell accurately how much they have gained or lost by their farm. But ask them to account for this gain or loss, and they can give no answer. If a tradesman, who has a capital in business equal to that of a farmer of a considerable number of acres, were to keep accounts in this manner, and become a bankrupt, no one would hesitate in saying that he failed because he kept no regular accounts. He had no greater stake than the farmer, and his transactions were perhaps less varied: if he kept no clerk, he should have attended better to the accounts himself. The same may be said of the farmer; and if a man who has a floating capital of 2000l. does not think it worth his while to keep detailed accounts, it is no great wonder if he is involved in difficulties. But it may be said that agricultural accounts are very simple, and that any one can keep them. So are merchants' accounts at first sight. Nothing is simpler than to put down what is bought and sold, what is the profit on each transaction, and the sum is the profit on the whole. But merchants know that to keep this very simple account many books, many entries, many checks, and consequently many clerks, are required. In a lesser degree this is true in a farm. It is easy to know what is bought and sold; what is expended or produced; but it requires very minute accounts to ascertain what part of the farm gives a profitable return, and what is the cause of loss. There may be a profit on the crops and a loss on the stock, or vice versa. The money expended on improvements or adventitious manure may have produced an increase which is proportionate to the outlay, and which affords a good interest; but it may also be a decided loss. How is this to be ascertained, except it be by accurate accounts? The expense of keeping accounts is much overrated. A clerk who has his board and 301. a year is generally a young man who has some education. He is useful in seeing that the operations ordered by the farmer are duly executed. He is a trusty overseer, and, as he ha his accounts in his thoughts, he is most likely to detect the cause

of any loss, from a want of attention in subordinate agents; his salary is therefore well earned, and the farmer will not think it thrown away. In whatever manner the accounts are kept, whether by the farmer himself or by a clerk, method is of great importance and whatever may be said against it by those who do not know its value, there is no system of accounts which can be compared with the well-known method of double entry, by which every account, and indeed every entry, is effectually checked. [BOOK-KEEPING.] The principle of this method is so simple, that the slowest arithmetician cannot be confused by it, and it is so perfect that no error can escape its scrutiny. As applied to agricultural accounts, which are simple in their nature, it becomes so clear, that if once adopted it is impossible that it should ever be abandoned. The satisfaction of a perfect proof of the correctness of the accounts is so great, that no one who has ever experienced it will be satisfied with any other method.

In the accounts of a farm there are many separate items to be taken into consideration. There may be a separate account kept for every field. There should always be one for every crop of which the rotation consists. There is an account of the labour of men and horses; of the produce of the dairy; of the stock purchased to be fatted, or sold again in an improved state. In short the divisions of the general account may be increased without limit. The more subjects there are to furnish items for an account, the more difficult it is to strike a balance, but, with a little attention and perseverance, it may be done; and he who keeps very correct accounts will always be the first to discover any impending evil, and to take measures to provide against it. The basis of all the accounts is a daily journal of every transaction, which must be collected from all the labourers and agents employed. M. de Dombasle, at his celebrated farm of Roville, in France, had all his principal servants and his apprentices assembled every evening after the day's work was over. Each man gave an account of the work done by him or under his superintendence, which was written down by the clerk. The orders for the next day were then given, and every one returned to his lodging or his home. In the course of the next day the clerk entered all that was in the journal into a book, where every person employed had an account; every field had one; every servant and domestic animal had one; and every item which could be separated from the rest was entered, both as adding to the account or taking from it. For example, the milk of the cow was entered daily. The quantity of butter, butter-milk, and skimmed-milk, which it produced was also entered; and these two accounts checked one another. Any error was immediately detected, and the knowledge of this prevented mistakes. An entry should be made of every par ticular operation in each field, that the farmer may know which is his most profitable land. The number of ploughings, the quantity of manure, the state of the weather, and all other circumstances which may influence the return should be carefully noted, in order that it may be clearly seen whether any experiment or deviation from the usual routine is advantageous or otherwise. Thus all real improvements may be encouraged, and uncertain theories detected by the

result.

The most important circumstance which influences the profits of a farmer is the cost of his team and the wages of his labourers. These vary in different situations so much, that they greatly influence the rent which he can afford to give for the land. In some parts of the country the horses are so pampered that they can scarcely do a day's work as they ought. In others they are over-worked and badly fed. Either extreme must be a loss to the farmer. In the first case, the horses cannot do their work, and they consume an unnecessary quantity of provender; in the other, they are soon worn out, and the loss in horses that become useless or die is greater than the saving in their food, or the extra work done by them. A horse properly fed will work eight or ten hours every day in the week, resting only on Sundays; by a judicious division of the labour of the horses, they are never over-worked, and an average value of a day's work is easily ascertained. This, in a well-regulated farm, will be found much less than the common valuations give it. It is here that most of the errors are to be detected in the accounts of the expense of cultivation given in evidence before parliament, without any intention to deceive in those who gave the accounts. There have been printed forms invented in order to render the accounts more simple as well as more comprehensive. Forms may be of use to enter minute details, and each superintendent labourer may have a form of entry for the work which he performs or superintends; but the ledger should be kept exactly as that of a mercantile man, and be frequently balanced to ensure correctness. This is a thing which cannot be too strongly recommended to young farmers.

When a farm has been agreed for as far as rent is concerned, there are always conditions in a lease, which it is of great importance to the farmer to understand fully. It is necessary that the landlord should have some security against the wilful deterioration of his land by a dishonest tenant, but agents are too apt to cramp the tenants by prescribing the exact mode of cultivation without giving the tenant sufficient scope to try improved methods, which may ultimately be highly beneficial to all parties. If the landlord can ensure that his land is in the hands of an intelligent tenant, and a man of principle as well as skill, that will secure the application of the proper quantity of manure, and that it shall be well tilled and kept free from weeds,

Ponts et Chaussées,' for 1833; or the reader may refer to Belidor's 'Architecture Hydraulique,' or to Sganzin's Cours de Construction, edité par Reibell. Sometimes civil engineers of the Continent employ large fascines, which form, in fact, baskets filled with gravel, and are known by the local name of saucissons; or they use large square or triangular prisms to form the hearting of their banks. It is on the shores of the Lower Rhine especially that the fascines are formed into gigantic rafts, as above mentioned, of from 3000 to 4000 yards superficial, which are subsequently floated over their intended position, and sunk by the addition of gravel, or stone pitching. The Dutch engineers frequently use bundles of reeds for the same purposes as the fascines, at least in the protection of exposed surfaces of their dykes; whilst they also occasionally line the surface of a slope, intended subsequently to be pitched, with bundles of straw, when the price of fascines is so great as to render their use impracticable.

FAST, abstinence from food, more particularly used for such abstinence as a religious observance; from the Anglo-Saxon fæstan. Religious fasting has been practised in almost all ages and all countries. Moses appointed that of the Day of Expiation for the Israelites. Herodotus (ii. 40) and Porphyry, give us details of the Egyptian fasts. Among the fasts of the primitive Christians, the greatest was that of Quadragesima, or Lent: but they likewise observed the Jejunia quatuor temporum, or fasts of the four seasons.

The fixed days appointed by the church of England for fasting are, first, the Forty days in Lent: second, the Ember days at the four seasons, being the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday, after the first Sunday in Lent, the Feast of Pentecost, September 14th, and December 13th; third, the three Rogation days, being the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Holy Thursday; fourth, all the Fridays in the year except Christmas-day. Other days of fasting are occasionally appointed by royal proclamation. The Long Parliament appointed a fast on the last Wednesday of every month.

The Roman Catholics, the Greek Church, the Jews, the Mohammedans, the Buddhists, all keep certain fasts, as a religious observance; that of the Mohammedans being very severe.

FASTI were marble tables at Rome, on which were inscribed the names of the consuls, dictators, censors, and other principal magistrates of the republic. Fragments of these tables have been collected, and are ranged along the walls of one of the halls in the palace of the Conservatori on the Capitol. The deficiencies in the series of the consuls have been supplied by means of the historians, and by consulting monumental inscriptions. Several learned men in modern times have compiled fasti, or chronological tables of the Roman consuls. Among the most learned and accurate of these compilers is Sigonio of Modena, who published his 'Fasti Consulares ac triumphi acti a Romulo rege ad Titum Cæsarem,' fol., 1559; with a dissertation 'de nominibus Romanorum,' a work of great erudition and exact criticism. Pighius published 'Annales Magistratuum et Provinciarum S. P. Q. R. ab Urbe condita,' fol., 1599. Labbe, in his Bibliotheca Nova,' published Fasti Consulares' out of a MS. of the college of Clermont. Other editions of the Fasti have been made from various sources. Between these lists occasional discrepancies occur as to the names of some of the consuls, and the particular years of their consulships; for, notwithstanding the labours of critics and antiquaries, there is still some uncertainty about Roman chronology. The word Fasti is often used as synonymous with the annals, or chronicles of a nation. The Fasti Hellenici,' and' Fasti Romani,' by H. F. Clinton, are valuable works of this description. [CLINTON, H. F., in BIOG. DIV.] The Romans had another kind of fasti, which they called 'Fasti minores,' a kind of almanacs, in which were registered the periodical festivals, games, official days for business, &c. Ovid wrote a poem explanatory of these fasti, which he dedicated to Germanicus, and in which he described the origin of the festivals, and the recollections, either happy or calamitous, connected with the various days of each month. The poem, as we have it, is in six books, one for each of the first six months in the year; the rest is unfortunately lost. FASTING. [ABSTINENCE.]

FATA MORGANA. [REFLEXION AND REFRACTION, EXTRAORDINARY ATMOSPHERIC.]

FATALISM. This term is used to express an article of philosophical religion, and usually signifies that the successive actions of mankind, and even the successive operations of the powers of nature, are under the guidance of some superior almighty power, so that these successions and the actions themselves are entirely independent of each other. This doctrine has been embodied in all religious systems, though very different names have been given to the governing power. The Greeks called it moira or ananke, and the Romans called it fate; their mythology also mentions a Demiurgus, who had formed the gods. All the ancient religions of Asia recognise a similar fate, something mightier than the gods, to whom it dictates laws; such, for example, as the alternating governments of Ormuzd and Ahrimanes in the Persian mythology, &c. Among the Hebrews the Pharisees were fatalists, the Sadducees materialists, and the Essenes deists. The old Germanic religion of Odin modified this fate, and brought it nearer to the idea of the government of the world by a deity, identifying it with their highest god, whose name was not to be pronounced. From this point fate changes to what is called predestination (in opposition to chance), which idea is only a mitigated fate, distinguished, however, from

genuine fatalism in proceeding directly from God, and not from fate. This belief in predestination was taught by Mohammed, and his followers have retained it. Roman Catholicism has no trace of this doctrine, but it is held by the Calvinists, and to a certain extent at least by the church of England. The doctrine of fatalism, as is well known, has been frequently and effectively used both by ancient and modern poets.

Intimately related to fatalism is the doctrine of the immediate and direct intervention of Providence in the government of the world. According to this doctrine the consequences of the actions of mankind depend wholly upon the actions themselves; God, however, is able so to conduct these consequences, that collectively they shall result in good, and conformably to his purpose. To comprehend this working precisely is impossible for man, since his mental powers are not sufficiently extensive, and this dogma must therefore be a matter of faith. This doctrine is held by many Christian sects, and in the Bible there are passages strongly in favour of such special intervention; for example, Matthew x. 29, "Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your Father." The third or deistical interpretation of this doctrine teaches the complete non-intervention of the Deity in the affairs of the world or of mankind: we may also call this doctrine the doctrine of theological chance, which may still be consistent with that of physical necessity, according to Kant. The doctrine of physical necessity was advocated by Hobbes, and served for the foundation of the charges against him of deism and atheism.

If we consider these doctrines in a philosophical point of view we may come to the following results :-The theological theories of fatalism, predestination, the immediate government of God, and his nonintervention, evidently bear an analogical relation to the political systems of despotism, constitutional monarchy, and republicanism. Accordingly as every one may have grounds for being an adherent of one of these political systems, so may he also have grounds for being a follower of one of these theological views. According to the ideas and investigations of the author of this article, God may have positively fixed, before any creation of the world, the eternal ideas, or the relations of things to each other within the circle of which nature and human intelligence have to move. These ideas are (1) for nature, self-preservation, or continuance, of which the product is attraction, &c.; regularity, producing crystallisation, &c; and adaptation to purposes, producing organisation, &c.; (2) for human intelligence, self-love, beauty, and virtue. In so far as nature and humanity with all their efforts cannot move out of this sphere of ideas, so far fatalism and predestination exist. The efforts of nature to adapt means to ends, and the endeavours of the wise after virtue (or human happiness) appear to produce an ever-increasing progression, and in this sense they constitute an intervention of Providence-since nature being wholly bound, and God absolutely uncontrolled, man stands between both; so that though he is not absolutely free, yet he is free to work his ultimate ends out of himself; he is free whenever he acts morally, and he is not free whenever he acts immorally (or rather physically), and he may thus arrive at the consciousness that his state in another world entirely depends on himself. With this conviction every species of intervention would appear less harsh towards him, and without these grounds he may be doubtful whether any direct intervention exists with respect to worldly affairs.

An intervention of any other kind than that of God would lead to the doctrine of demons and spirits.

FATHER. [PARENT AND CHILD.]

FATHERS OF THE CHURCH is the name given to the early teachers and expounders of Christianity, who lived between the second and the sixth centuries of our æra, and whose writings are looked upon as possessing considerable authority in matters of faith. The earlier, or "primitive fathers," as they are sometimes styled, to distinguish them from the fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries, and who followed close upon the apostolical age, or the age in which the Apostles lived and died, are generally reckoned as follows. 1st, Clemens Romanus, or CLEMENT I., bishop of Rome, who died about A.D. 100. 2nd, IGNATIUS, bishop of Antioch. 3rd, POLYCARPUS, bishop of Smyrna. 4th, JUSTINUS, or JUSTIN MARTYR. 5th, Theophilus, made bishop of Antioch about 169, died about the beginning of the reign of Commodus: there is extant by him a work in three books, addressed to Autolycus, a heathen friend of Theophilus, whom he endeavoured to convert to the Christian faith. 6th, IRENEUS, bishop of Lyon. 7th, CLEMENS, TITUS FLAVIUS ALEXANDRINUS. 8th, CYPRIAN, bishop of Carthage. 9th, ORIGEN of Alexandria. 10th, GREGORIUS, called Thaumaturgus. 11th, Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, also a disciple of Origen: was banished under Valerian to the deserts of Libya, but was restored to his see under Gallienus, was engaged in controversy with Sabellius, Nepos, and Paul of Samosata, and died A.D. 265: of his numerous writings only fragments remain. 12th, Tertullianus of Carthage.

We now come to those Fathers of the Church who flourished in the fourth century, after Christianity had become the religion of the Empire, an age which may be styled the Augustan age of ecclesiastical literature, for the number and the merits of the writers whom it produced. The fathers of this period are generally ranged in two classes-Fathers of the Greek or Eastern Church, and Fathers of the

31

FATHOM.

Latin Church. The former are: 1st, EUSEBIUS of Cæsarea. 2nd, ATHANASIUS, bishop of Alexandria. 3rd, BASILIUS, bishop of Cæsarea. 4th, GREGORIUS of Nazianzus. 5th, GREGORIUS, bishop of Nyssa. 6th, CYRIL, bishop of Jerusalem. 7th, CHRYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN, patriarch of Constantinople. 8th, EPHIPHANIUS, bishop of Salamis. 9th, CYRIL, bishop of Alexandria. To the above must be added Ephraim the Syrian, deacon of Edessa, who died about 378, and whose works have been published in the original text by Assemani.

The Fathers of the Latin Church are: 1st, LACTANTIUS. 2nd, HILARIUS, bishop of Poitiers. 3rd, AMBROSE, archbishop of Milan. 4th, JEROME, the translator of the Bible. 5th, AUGUSTINE, bishop of Hippo. With Augustine the list of the great Fathers of the Church is generally considered as terminating, although this title has been also bestowed on some subsequent prelates and theologians; but these, such as Bernard, Thomas Aquinas, &c., are more properly distinguished by the name of Doctors of the Church.

Of all the fathers whose names in the foregoing lists are printed in small capitals there will be found notices in the BIOGRAPHICAL DIVISION.

The study of the Fathers is interesting and important not only to theologians, but to those who would examine carefully the philosophy and the state of society in their time.

FATHOM. [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.]

FATTY ACIDS. Fats and fixed oils consist for the most part of glycerin united with an organic acid, and when such fats and oils are boiled with basic substances, especially with the alkalies and alkaline earths they are decomposed, the acid uniting with the base, whilst the glycerin is set at liberty. This process of decomposition is commonly termed saponification, because it is the one essentially employed in the manufacture of soaps. The acids thus extracted from the fats and oils are frequently spoken of under the name of fatty acids. They belong to two distinct groups of organic acids, namely, to the series having the general formula, CnHnO, and to that having the general formula, CnH(n-2) 0. By the action of oxidising agents upon some of the members of these groups, a third family of acids of the form CnH(n-2)0, is produced. The acids belonging to the latter family are bibasic. The following list gives the names and formula of the members of these three series of acids :

Acids having the formula CnHno..

:

Acids having the formula CnH(n-2)0.

Monobasic.

Formic C2 H2 04

Monobasic.

Acids having the formula CnH (n-2)08. Bibasic.

Acetic. C1 H4 O

Propionic. C. H. O, Acrylic

Butyric. C. Hg 0

Valerianic. C10H100

Caproic . C1H190, Angelic

Enanthylic C14H1404

Caprylic C16H160

Cerotic. C54H4O

Melissic CooH600

Physetoleic C3H3004 • C36H3104

Succinic Cs I Os
C12H1008
Adipic
Pimelic . C14H1208
Suberic . C16H1408

Rondinini Faun from the British Museum.

had not Canova used his influence to prevent its leaving Italy. Another very fine figure of a faun or satyr in the British Museum is that known as the 'Laughing Faun,' but the arms and both the legs below the knees are the work of a noted Italian "restorer" named Algardi, and A third, and equally are quite inconsistent with the original torso. celebrated statue in the same collection is that of a faun or satyr lying on his back, and known as the 'Drunken Faun': of this also the right arm and both feet are a restoration. There are some other statues and relievi of fauns in the British Museum which will sufficiently illustrate their general character: they are mostly collected in the Third Græco-Roman Saloon. The Fauni are almost invariably represented in playful attitudes, with a wild, mirthful, transient expression. Flaxman has in a single sentence sufficiently characterised them. "The Fauns are youthful, sprightly, tendonous; their faces round, chief." (Lectures on Sculpture,' p. 152.)

FAULT. [MINING.]

FAUSSE-BRAYE, a name given to the rampart which, constituting a second enceinte, is sometimes formed on the exterior of and parallel In the ancient fortifications a bank of earth was frequently raised in to that which constitutes the principal enceinte of a fortress. the ditch, nearly or quite contiguous to the wall of stone or brick surrounding the place, in order to protect the latter against the 16th century make mention of a detached wall of masonry similarly battering-engines of the besiegers; and the Italian engineers of the situated, which seems to have been intended for a like purpose. This was then called a fossa-brea, and subsequently, by the French engineers, a fausse-braye; the first term indicating a covering work in the ditch, and the other simply a secondary or advanced rampart.

In and immediately before the time of Vauban the fausse-braye constituted the exterior part of the general rampart of a fortress; its terreplein, or upper surface, was on, though sometimes a little above or below, the level of the country, and it carried a parapet for the protection of the defenders. The terreplein and parapet of the interior part of the rampart were several feet higher than those of the faussebraye, and the interval between the two parapets was sometimes broad enough to allow room for artillery.

A good indication of the nature of this work may be obtained from