(mostly girls) earn about 6s. per week each on an average; some, who are quick and clever, occasionally earn as much as 20s. In one of the establishments the sewing-machines are driven by steam-power, and are fitted with patent self-acting regulators, still further to increase the automatic action. Besides these machine-sewers working in factories, there are 16,000 hand-sewers scattered over the counties of Londonderry, Donegal, Tyrone, Fermanagh, and Antrim.

We may remark, in conclusion, that in the United States, spinning and weaving factories are much more frequently owned by joint-stock companies than in England. The celebrated cotton factories at Lowell, and numerous others in the northern states of the Union, are held by companies; they are large, well provided with machinery, and worked by operatives who maintain a somewhat higher status than those of England. This may in part result from the more general diffusion of education in that country, a fact of which there seems to be no doubt. In these large American spinning and weaving mills, owned by companies, the proprietors often provide boarding-houses, in which many of the work people-especially girls and young women away from their parents' homes-are supplied with food and lodging under a well-organised system, and at prices calculated rather in relation to the well-being of the persons themselves than to the realisation of a profit.

FACULTIES. [UNIVERSITY.]

FAGINE. An alkaloid of unknown composition contained in the beech-nut, Fagus sylvatica.

FAGOT, SAP-, a small kind of FASCINE, about 3 feet in length.
FAINTING. [SYNCOPE.]

FAIR, an annual or fixed meeting of buyers and sellers; from the Latin feria, a holiday. Fairs in ancient times were chiefly held on holidays.

Anciently, before many flourishing towns were established, and the necessaries or ornaments of life, from the convenience of communication and the increase of provincial civility, could be procured in various places, goods and commodities of every kind were chiefly sold at fairs, to which, as to one universal mart, the people resorted periodically, and supplied most of their wants for the ensuing year. The display of merchandise and the conflux of customers at these the most comprehensive markets for domestic commerce was prodigious, and they were therefore often held on open and extensive plains. Warton, in his History of English Poetry,' has given a curious account of that of St. Giles's Hill or Down, near Winchester. It was instituted and given as a kind of revenue to the Bishop of Winchester by William the Conqueror, who by his charter permitted it to continue for three days; but in consequence of new royal grants, Henry III. prolonged its continuance to sixteen days. Its jurisdiction extended seven miles round, and comprehended even Southampton, then a capital trading town; and all merchants who sold wares within that circuit, unless at the fair, forfeited them to the bishop. As late as 1512, as we learn from the Northumberland Household-book, fairs still continued to be the principal marts for purchasing necessaries in large quantities, which are now supplied by the numerous trading towns. Philip, king of France, complained in very strong terms to Edward II. in 1314 that the merchants of England had desisted from frequenting the fairs in his dominions with their wood and other goods, to the great loss of his subjects, and entreated him to persuade, and, if necessary, to compel them, to frequent the fairs of France as formerly, promising them all possible security and encouragement. (Rym., ' Fod.,' tom. iii., p. 482.) When a town or village had suffered from misfortune, by way of assisting to re-establish it, a fair, among other privileges, was sometimes granted. This was the case at Burley, in Rutlandshire, 49th Edw. III. (Abbrev. Rot. Orig., vol. ii., p. 338.)

The Chronicles of Stow and Grafton, published in Queen Elizabeth's time, contain lists of the fairs of England according to the months. No fair or market can be held but by a grant from the crown, or by prescription supposed to take its rise from some ancient grant, of which no record can be found.

The fairs of Frankfort-on-the-Mayn and Leipzig are still pre-eminent in Europe; each is held three times a year. Leipzig at these times is the mart and exchange of Central Europe, and is visited by merchants and foreigners from the most distant parts of the globe, sometimes to the number of thirty or forty thousand. The whole booktrade of Germany is centred in the Easter fair at Leipzig. Nishnei Novgorod, in Russia, at the confluence of the Oka and the Wolga, has a great annual fair in June, at which an immense number of traders assemble, many of them from the most remote parts of Asia.

FAIRIES, a small sort of imaginary spirits of both sexes in human shape, who are fabled to haunt houses in companies, to reward cleanliness, to dance and revel in meadows in the night-time, and to play a thousand freakish pranks. Both sexes are represented generally as clothed in green, and the traces of their tiny feet are supposed to remain visible on the grass for a long time after their dances: these are still called fairy-rings or circles. They are also fabled to be in the practice of stealing unbaptised infants and leaving their own progeny in their stead. Besides these terrestrial fairies, there was a species who dwelt in the mines, where they were often heard to imitate the actions of the workmen, to whom they were thought to be inclined to do service. In Wales this kind of fairies was called "knockers," and

Some fairies

was said to point out the rich veins of silver and lead. are fabled to have resided in wells. It was also believed that there was a sort of domestic fairies, called, from their sunburnt complexions, Brownies, who were extremely useful, and who performed all sorts of domestic drudgery. The words fairy and browny seem at once to point out their own etymologies.

Bourne, in his Antiquitates Vulgares,' supposes the superstition relating to fairies to have been conveyed down to us by tradition from the Lamiæ, or ancient sorceresses; others have deduced them from the lares of the Romans. Dr. Percy tells us, on the assurance of a learned friend in Wales, that the existence of fairies is alluded to by the most ancient British bards, among whom their commonest name was that of the Spirits of the Mountains. The most general conjecture, however, is, that these imaginary people are of Oriental origin, and that the notion of them was first entertained by the Persians and Arabs, whose traditions and stories abound with the adventures of these imaginary beings. The Persians called them Peris; the Arabs, Ginn; and the Arabs assigned them a peculiar country to inhabit, which they called Ginnistan, or Fairy-land.

Shakspere has been singularly happy in his dramatic exhibition of fairies. The belief in these fabled beings has still a fast hold upon the minds of many of our rustics, which may perhaps be considered as a remnant of that credulity which was once almost universal. Poole, in his English Parnassus,' has given the names of the fairy court, their clothing, and their diet. Dr. Grey, in his 'Notes on Shakspere,' gives us a description, from other writers, of fairy-land, a fairy entertainment, and fairy hunting; and Dr. King has given a description of Orpheus' fairy entertainment in his 'Orpheus and Eurydice' (edit. 1776, vol. iii., p. 212). Wieland in his Oberon' gives an account of the quarrel of Oberon and Titania, with consequences varying considerably from those detailed by Shakspere in his Midsummer Night's Dream.' A charm against fairies was turning the cloak. The reader who would look further into fairy mythology may consult Percy's 'Reliques of Antient English Poetry;' Sir Walter Scott's Essay on the Fairy Superstition,' in the Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border;' Keightley's Fairy Mythology,' published in 1828, in which the legends of different countries are collected; and Jacob Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie,' 1835.

FAITH (fides, in Latin), means belief or trust in a fact or doctrine, and is more especially used to express the belief of Christians in the tenets of their religion, and also by figure to mean that religion itself. The great divisions of Christianity, the Roman, the Greek, the Reformed or Calvinist, the Episcopal English, the Independents, and the Protestant or Lutheran churches, have each separate confessions of faith, but they all acknowledge the great fundamental points of the Christian faith or religion, namely, the inspiration of the Scriptures, and the divinity of Jesus Christ. [CONFESSIONS.] In the earlier ages of the Church the chief controversies of theologians, especially in the East, ran upon metaphysical questions concerning the mysteries of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the divine nature of the Saviour. In modern times controversy has run more frequently upon moral questions concerning the conduct of men, the requisites of salvation, and the discipline of the Church. Faith, the necessity of which is acknowledged by all Christians, has been viewed in various lights with respect to its efficacy. From the earliest ages the Church has taught that faith, or belief in the Redeemer, joined with good works, was necessary for the justification of man; that good works, that is, works acceptable to God, could only be produced by the Spirit of God influencing the heart, but that the human will must co-operate with grace in producing them, though the human will alone is powerless to good unless assisted by divine grace. Still, man being a free agent, the will can call on God, through the merits of the Saviour, for a measure of his grace to assist its own efforts. Thus the co-operation of God and man was held as the means of the justification and salvation of the latter. Luther, however, and Calvin, denied the power of the will to call on God for his grace; they substituted faith, and faith alone, in the merits of the Redeemer, as the means of salvation, by which faith man firmly believes that his sins are at once remitted. But this faith must be sincere, absolute, without a shadow of doubt or distrust; and as man cannot of himself obtain this, it can only be given to him by inspiration of the Spirit of God. Here the question of faith becomes involved with those of grace and predestination. As for our works, both Luther and Calvin look upon them as absolutely worthless for our salvation. Some fanatics, and the Anabaptists among the rest, drew from these premises of the leading reformers some very dangerous consequences, which Luther and Calvin had not anticipated, such as that men might live as profligately as they pleased, and yet, by the inspiration of divine grace, might obtain the faith requisite for their salvation.

The opinions of Luther and Calvin on the subject of faith and predestination have been since considerably modified by many Protestant divines, who have admitted that the will of man must co-operate in order to obtain the grace necessary for justification. The Roman Catholic church admits the merit of good works and repentance, united with faith, for the purpose of salvation. But then, it requires an absolute faith in all the decisions of its general councils in matters of dogma, without the least liberty of investigation on the part of the laity, and without any doubt, for doubt itself is held to be sinful. The Reformed and Protestant churches, generally speaking, hold faith in

the fundamental dogmas of Christianity as an essential requisite for salvation.

FAKIR, an Arabic word, meaning "poor," which is applied to the ascetics of several parts of the eastern world. In this sense it is synonymous with the Persian and Turkish dervish. The word fakir is chiefly used in India. There are fakirs who live in communities like the monks of the western world, and others who live singly as hermits, or wander about exhibiting strange displays of self-penance and mortification. Many of them are considered as hypocrites, and others are fanatics or idiots. [DERVISH.]

FALCONRY, or HAWKING, the art of training and flying hawks to take other birds. Julius Firmicus, who lived in the middle of the 4th century, is the first Latin writer who speaks of falconers and the art of teaching one species of bird to fly at and catch another. The art, however, had been, in all probability, practised in the East from remote ages, whence it certainly came to Europe.

From the Heptarchy to the time of Charles II. falconry was a principal amusement of our ancestors in England: a person of rank scarcely stirred out without a hawk upon his hand, which, in old illuminations and upon ancient seals, is the criterion of nobility. Harold, afterwards king of England, is thus represented in the Bayeux tapestry, when visiting the court of William, duke of Normandy.

In Domesday Book' the practice of falconry is illustrated by numerous entries. In several places we find a sum, no less than ten pounds, made the optional payment instead of finding a hawk (Domesd.,' tom. i., fol. 134, b. 172, 230); and once, at Worcester (tom. i. 172) a Norway hawk is specified. Aeries, or places destined for the breeding or training of hawks, are entered in the Survey in Buckinghamshire, Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Herefordshire,

Shropshire, and, more frequently than in other counties, in Cheshire, as well as among the lands between the Ribble and the Mersey. Nor were hawks less prized at subsequent periods. According to Madox ('Hist. Excheq.,' i. 273), in the 14th Hen. II., Walter Cnot, one of the king's tenants, rendered his rent at the exchequer in three hawks and three girfalcons. King John had also his hawks (Pat. 4, Joh. m. 2); and upon the Patent Roll of the 34th Hen. III. a copy occurs of the letter which the king sent in that year to the king of Norway for hawks. In the 34th Edw. III. it was made felony to steal a hawk; to take its eggs, even in a person's own ground, was punishable with imprisonment for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king's pleasure. In Queen Elizabeth's reign the imprisonment was reduced to three months; but the offender was to find security for his good behaviour for seven years, or lie in prison till he did. (Pennant, 'Brit. Zool.,' 8vo, Lond., 1812, vol. i., p. 212.)

By an entry upon the Originalia Rolls of the 35th Edw. III. '(' Origin.,' vol. ii., p. 267) it appears that a falcon gentil cost 208., a tersil gentil 108., a tersil lestour 68. 8d., and a lanner 6s. 8d.: these were the prices which the sheriff was to give for hawks for the king's use. In an account-book of the 20th Hen. VIII. a goshawk and two falcons are prized at 31., and five falcons and a tersil at 8. Bert, in his Address to the Reader, prefixed to his Treatise of Hawkes and Hawking,' published in 1619, says he "had for a goshawke and a

tarsell a hundred marks."

6

Falconry was attempted to be revived by George, earl of Orford, who died in 1791; and in Yorkshire, Col. Thornton had a hawking establishment at a rather later period. Sir John Sebright and a few other gentlemen also practised it in Norfolk at the beginning of the present century. As a rural diversion, however, principally in consequence of the enclosures, it has gone into disuse, though there are still occasional attempts made for its revival.

A list of the hawks which were most used by sportsmen in the time of Charles I. is given in Walton's Complete Angler;' and an explanation of the words of art in hawking will be found in Latham's Falconry,' 4to, Lond., 1633.

The earliest printed treatise on hawking in English is the 'Book of St. Alban's,' fol., 1481, ascribed to Juliana Barnes or Berners, abbess of Sopwell. [BERNERS, JULIANA, in BIOG. DIV.] There are numerous other and curious treatises upon falconry both in French and English, some of them of very rare occurrence. 'Le Miroir de Phebus, avec l'Art de Faucōnerie,' published at Paris in 8vo, without date, was the first work upon the subject printed in the French language.

FALL OF BODIES. Under this head we propose simply to explain the laws which regulate the fall of a material substance, supposed either to be allowed to drop or to be projected directly upwards or downwards. The motion of a body projected in an oblique or horizontal direction comes under PROJECTILES, THEORY OF; the nature of the forces which cause the descent or retard the ascent, under ACCELERATED MOTION, ACCELERATING FORCE, ACCELERATION, ATTWOOD's MACHINE, GRAVITY, &c.; and the circumstances which influence more or less the results about to be specified, under PROJECTILES, RESISTANCE, MOTION OF THE EARTH, MOTION, LAWs of.

The resistance of the air does not greatly affect the motion of bodies, unless either-1, the bodies themselves be very light, as in the case of feathers, or, 2, the velocities be very great, as in that of a cannon-ball. The law according to which this resistance acts is not well ascertained for great velocities, but for moderate velocities it is not far from the truth to say that it is as the square of the velocity; that is to say, whatever resistance there may be to a velocity of 10 feet per second,

there is four times as much to 20 feet per second, nine times as much to 30 feet per second, and so on,

Neglecting the resistance of the air, let us first suppose a body (say a bullet) to be allowed to drop from a height above the earth. The law of its motion is as follows. It acquires velocity uniformly at the rate of 323 feet per second; that is, at the end of a quarter of a second it is in such motion as would, were the action of the earth to cease, cause it to describe 8,4 feet in a second. At the end of one second the rate of motion is 321 feet per second; at the end of two seconds, 64} per second, and so on; that is, the fall of a body is a uniformly ACCELERATED MOTION. In the article just cited the law of this motion is further explained. We shall here collect the principal formulæ connected with the subject, referring to PENDULUM and ATTWOOD'S MACHINE for the manner in which the main fact of the acceleration being 32 feet per second is proved and verified. Let g=321

t=the number of seconds during which the motion has lasted when the body has attained a velocity of v feet per second, and described a length of s feet.

First, suppose the bullet simply to drop without any initial impulse being communicated. Then v2=2gs

v=gt,

8=gt=vt, Thus, either of the three, v, t,s, being given, the others may be found. Secondly, suppose the bullet to be projected downwards with a velocity of a feet per second: the consequence is still a uniform addition of g feet per second to the velocity, and we have

and the height through which the bullet will ascend is a2÷2g feet, the time of doing which is a÷g seconds. After this the first case may be repeated; but this is not necessary, for the preceding equations will continue to represent the relations which actually exist, provided that v, becoming negative, be interpreted as indicating that the turn has taken place and the bullet has begun its descent, and also that s becoming negative be interpreted to mean that the descent has continued until the bullet has passed through the point from which it was first thrown, and fallen below it. For instance (supposing g=32 for simplicity), let a bullet be projected upwards with a velocity of 100 feet per second, where will it be, and at what rate will it be moving, at the end of ten seconds?

v=100-32 × 10-220, or the bullet is moving downwards at the rate of 220 feet per second.

8= 100 × 10-× 32 × 10-600, or the bullet is 600 feet below the point from which it was thrown upwards.

FALLACY, as defined by Archbishop Whately, is any unsound mode of arguing which appears to carry conviction and to be decisive of the question in hand, when in fairness it is not. Bentham's definition in his Book of Fallacies' is this: "By the name of fallacy it is common to designate any argument employed, or topic suggested, for the purpose, or with a probability, of producing the effect of deception-of causing some erroneous opinion to be entertained by any person to whose mind such argument may have been presented." Accordingly if an argument be undesignedly vicious, and without any attempt at deception, it is more correctly termed a paralogism, and it is the intention of fraud that constitutes the fallacy or sophism. There is, however, a legitimate use of fallacy which is too often unnoticed by writers on logic. Thus, in modern times Kant has employed the dilemma for a purely scientific purpose; and from the impossibility of two opposite and conflicting cases, has inferred, not as is the usual deduction, that the hypothesis upon which they both rest is false and untenable, but that the truth is intermediate. In like manner did Zeno of Elea infer the inadequacy of sense to represent the truth, from his conclusion that either a bushel of corn must make no noise in falling, or else the fall of the smallest portion of a single grain must be perceptible to the ear. Again, the famous Megarian fallacies of the Heap and the Bald-head' (acervus calvus), in which it is proved that these notions are incapable of any precise determination, may have been designed to show that the distinctions of degree (here represented by Heap and Bald-head) are unavailable for philosophical purposes, and thereby to call attention to the difficulty of admitting into science the vague representations of sense.

Aristotle, in his treatise De Sophisticis Elenchis,' has laboured to expose and classify the different fallacies which he terms sophismata (σopiouara). He divides them into those extra dictionem (EEW TŶS λegéws), where the fallacy is in the process of reasoning, and those in dictione (Taρà тην λéğı) where it lies in the subject-matter. The former have by the schoolmen been called formal, the latter material. Dr. Whately proposes the terms logical and non-logical; which terminology

has at least the advantage in a scientific point of view that it excludes from the domain of logic much that is extraneous to it; for the fallacies of form may be reduced to the syllogism with four terms which the analytical process of demonstration can alone discover, whereas those of the matter must be corrected by the formation of valid principles and a correct generalisation of terms, which belong to the synthesis of induction, which is totally alien from logic as the science of demonstrative reasoning.

For an enumeration and exposition of the several sophisms, see the sections on fallacy in Whately's Logic;' and for the exposure of that class of fallacies which he has called political fallacies, the work of Bentham, already cited.

FALLING STARS. [AEROLITES.]

FALLOW operations are those acts of cultivation which depend for their fertilising influence rather on the mere tillage of the soil, its disintegration, disturbance, and exposure to external agencies, than on the direct addition of fertilising matter. Originally the term fallow applied to that portion of land in which no seed is sown for a whole year, in order that the soil may be left exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, the weeds destroyed by repeated ploughings and harrowings, and the fertility improved at a less expense of manure than it would be if a crop had been raised upon it. Even then a large portion of the benefit derived from fallow was attributed to the mere tillage operations included in the term; but, in addition to this, manuring was (and indeed still is) an almost invariable part of a summer fallow. A bare summer fallow is, however, now comparatively rare, and fallow crops, those which allow of fallow operations during their growth, are the fertilising agents substituted in its place. The practice of fallowing land is as old as the Roman Empire. It appears that wherever the Romans extended their conquests and planted colonies, they introduced this mode of restoring land to a certain degree of fertility when exhausted by bearing grain. The principle on which it was recommended was, however, erroneous. It was thought that the land grew tired of raising vegetable produce and required rest, and hence this rest was often all that constituted the fallow; the tillage, which alone is the improving part of the process, being almost entirely neglected. Where land was abundant and the population thin, it was no great loss to allow a considerable portion of the soil to remain unproductive; and it was cheaper to let land lie fallow during the course of a whole year, which gave ample leisure for every operation, than to accelerate the tillage and increase the manure put upon it. But when land becomes of greater value with the increase of population, it is a serious loss if a great portion of the soil be thus left in an unproductive state. Accordingly the attention of agriculturists has been turned to lessen the necessity of fallows, and to substitute some other means of restoring fertility. It is acknowledged by all experienced farmers that manure alone is not sufficient for this purpose. The ground must be tilled and noxious weeds destroyed; and the only efficacious mode of doing so is to stir the ground at the time when their seeds have vegetated, their roots have made shoots, and before any new seed can ripen. But this is exactly the time when corn is usually growing, and when the land cannot be stirred to expose it to the heat of the sun and to dry the roots which are turned up. The only apparent remedy is therefore not to sow it during one summer, and on this principle lands are usually fallowed. The manner in which this is done has been noticed before [ARABLE LAND]; and the common process is so simple, that, provided the purpose of fallowing be kept in view, the operations require only a little attention to time and weather to be performed aright.

There is no difference of opinion respecting the manner of extirpating weeds by repeated ploughing and harrowing, but there is with respect to the influence of the heat of the sun upon the land. Some men are of opinion that light is the great purifier of the soil; that it decomposes certain noxious particles, which are the result of the formation of the seed, and which have been termed the excrements of plants. Physiologists agree that the roots draw the nutritive juices out of the soil, that they undergo a chemical change in the plant, and that there is an exudation also from the roots, which may be looked upon as the residuum of the natural process. De Candolle, Raspail, and other eminent physiologists have placed this point beyond controversy; but no one has yet been able to collect these matters so as to analyse and compare them; and the reasonings on the subject have been merely conjectural. In particular soils and situations a scorching sun has a pernicious effect on the soil which is exposed to his rays; and where it is shaded by a crop which covers it completely, it seems to have acquired fertility, which the exposed surface has not. But this is not sufficient to establish a general rule. Some soils which are of a wet nature are greatly improved by being as it were baked in a hot sun. Not only are the weeds destroyed by the abstraction of moisture, but the soil thus becomes lighter and more friable. On sandy soils the reverse is the case, and on intermediate loams the effect will be more or less advantageous as they approach nearer to the clay or to the sand. In light sandy soils, then, it is probable that the only advantage of a naked fallow is to kill weeds, especially the couchgrass (Triticum repens), which is apt to infest light soils: and that the exposure to the sun in hot weather is not only no advantage, but probably detrimental. If, then, any means can be devised of clearing light lands from weeds without leaving them fallow for a whole

ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. IV.

summer, a great advantage will be obtained. This ha been effected completely by the cultivation of turnips and clover, which was first practised in the light soils of Flanders, and afterwards introduced into the similar soils of Norfolk, from whence it has spread all over Great Britain, and is beginning to be adopted more generally in Ireland. The advantage of the turnip culture is so great in light lands, that it has gradually been extended through the different gradations of loams, till it has reached even the colder and stiffer clays, on which it would at one time have been thought absurd to attempt to raise this root. But this has been attended with an important benefit. It has made the cultivators of heavy soils turn their attention to the drying of their lands, by draining, and to improving their texture by burning and by deep tillage, in order to make them capable of bearing turnips; and although the extended culture of this useful root is not what we should recommend for cold wet clays, we highly approve of all improvements which will make such lands capable of bearing good crops of turnips. Unless the turnips can be consumed by sheep on the spot, or by cattle near at hand, without injuring the land in taking off the turnips and carting on the manure, there will be no great advantage in a crop of turnips; and some other substitute must be found for the occasional fallow before it can be altogether abandoned. The great hope of the clay-land farmer, as to the possibility of the successful cultivation of a fallow crop on such land, rests on the mangoldwurzel and the cabbage crop [CABBAGE; MANGOLD, Cultivation of], which are especially fitted for soils of the stiffer class. On light lands the preparation for the turnips, the abundant manuring, and subsequent hoeing, are as effectual in cleaning the land and bringing it into a fertile state as any complete fallow could ever be; and the clover smothers and destroys the seed weeds which may have come up amongst the barley or oats sown after the turnips. There are several ways in which the cultivation of light soils may be varied without adhering strictly to the Norfolk rotation, so as to introduce a greater variety of produce. Tares may be sown on the better sorts of light lands after a good tillage given immediately after harvest. If they are fed off or cut green in May and June, early turnips may be sown after them, which will be fit to feed off or draw for the cows in September, in good time for ploughing up the land for wheat-sowing. In this case the land gets all the ploughing necessary to clean it completely, and exactly at the best time. Three ploughings may be given after the tares if the land is not clean, and the turnips being well hand-hoed and horse-hoed, the land will be perfectly clean to receive the wheat-seed. Manure may be put on for the tares or the turnips; and if these are fed off with sheep, they will so enrich the soil, that the next crop cannot fail to be abundant. As a general rule, however, tares are better adapted for the clay soils; and rye is a better crop to take before turnips on sandy loam. By varying the management of light land according to circumstances, and with some judgment, many more profitable crops can be raised than by the common simple rotation, in which a fourth of the land is sown with turnips. If this crop fails, which is often the case where it recurs so often, the whole system is deranged, and the loss is very great. The introduction of a greater variety of produce in the cultivation of light lands, in imitation of the Flemish practice, and the increase of stock kept in consequence, would be an important step in the improvement of British husbandry.

On heavy soils it is often impossible to keep the land clear of weeds, in wet climates and unfavourable seasons, without a complete fallow, and when this is the case it is best to do the thing effectually. Upon cold wet soils, which should always first of all be well under-drained, no pains should be spared to get the land perfectly clean: if both climate and circumstances interfere with the thorough cultivation of a fallow crop, then let the soil be exposed to the frost of two winters and the heat of one summer and part of another, as already mentioned [ARABLE LAND.] Only one crop is lost by this method, and if the land is properly worked, cleaned, and manured in autumn, it may be sown with barley or oats in the spring of the second year. The crop will be ample, and the subsequent produce of clover equally so, and the land so clean, that, with proper manuring, several crops may succeed, such as wheat, beans, oats, tares, wheat, without the necessity of another intervening fallow. The advice we would impress on the minds of the cultivators is-Avoid fallows if you can keep your land clean; but when you fallow, do it effectually, and improve the soil at the same time by chalk, lime, or marl, according to circumstances. Do not spare either ploughs or harrows in dry weather. If you dare not trust to the drainage which the land has received, then lay the stitches high and dry before winter, and deepen the water furrows well with the spade. By following these rules the stiffest land may be brought into a good state of cultivation; and the farmer will not find, by the growth of weeds, docks, and thistles, that his labour and manure are thrown away, as is too often the case. Experience has fully proved that the air and the dews impart fertility to the soil, and that land which has been well fallowed and stirred requires less manure than it would otherwise do. Fallowing alone will not make up for want of manure, nor will manuring be sufficient without ploughing and cleaning the land properly, and exposing it to the influence of the atmosphere, especially in autumn and in spring; but a great saving of the one and the other may be effected, by judiciously varying the crops so as to admit of ploughing the land at different seasons of the year.

It is asserted by some old-fashioned farmers that the plough alone is sufficient for all the purposes of fallowing. This is a great error, which leads to useless and unnecessary labour. We would almost say that ploughing the fallows is never necessary, except to enable the drags and harrows to stir the land. The first ploughing of the stubble cannot be too shallow, and the harrows should be set to work before the wet weather sets in. When the surface is become mellow and clean, the land may be ploughed deep, and the soil below should be brought up and exposed to the air and frost all the winter. In spring the drag should begin the work again before the soil is hard. It may then be ploughed in narrow ridges right across the old stitches, or obliquely, and left for the influence of summer. The drags will level all these ridges when the manure is to be put on; and this being ploughed, the land is fit to receive the seed, if wheat is the crop intended. If it is left for barley, it must have another ploughing in spring, and be well harrowed before the seed is sown, especially if this is done by the drilling-machine. The clover or grass-seeds may be sown immediately after, and the land lightly rolled. There is no danger of making it too fine in spring. Without a fine tilth no good barley can be expected. No account of fallow operations would be complete without a reference to the Lois-Weedon system of cultivation, in which the Rev. S. Smith, incumbent of that parish, has improved upon the system of Jethro Tull, and been enabled to grow excellent successive crops of wheat in the same field for more than a dozen years. It is by far the most notable illustration of the fertilising influence of mere fallow operations which this country exhibits, and it is a remarkable thing that a practice of such proved profitableness does not more rapidly extend. The following remarks descriptive of it are taken from the 'Agricultural Gazette.'

The Rev. Samuel Smith has now had thirteen successive crops of wheat off the same field; the last was 38 bushels, the previous one was 40, the one before was 36, the one before that was 37, and of prior years, beginning with 1847, the average yield may be safely given at 34. It is not that the land is particularly fertile; it is really nothing but the ordinary heavy wheat land of the oolitic formation. Thousands and ten thousands of acres of the same quality extend across the country from the coast of Dorset to the Humber; and the rent of such land is under 30s., being lower by 20s. at least than the red land of the county.' These results have not been kept a secret: they have been published far and wide-first, when agriculture was in difficulties, as A Word in Season,'* for such it surely was when we were all desponding over the gloomy prospect of wheat at less than 10%. a load; and it told us how 34 bushels of wheat could be grown perpetually on every acre of wheat land for less than 71., 2. of which were rent. And these results have been published and republished, now a sixteenth time, still as a Word in Season,' for such it will continue to be, not only when farm profits are difficult, but so long as they are desirable. Lois-Weedon practice and experience are very generally known. Is the account of them incredible? Those who only know of them by hearsay or mere rumour may perhaps plead unbelief. Hardly any one, however, who has read the tract describing them can do so-a simpler, clearer, more straightforward statement never yet was written in the English language; and no one who knows either the locality or the author can doubt it for a moment. It is perfectly true that for the last eleven years nearly 35 bushels per acre have been annually grown upon the same land without manure, at an average annual cost, including rent and taxes (21. 4s. 3d.), of 71. 3s. 9d. The Lois-Weedon mode of growing wheat consists essentially in the deep cultivation (during the growth of the crop) of wide fallowed intervals between adjacent triplet rows which intervals are the seed-bed of next year's produce. As you walk across the field you traverse alternate strips of plant and fallow-three rows a foot apart and then a yard-wide blank. These blanks being deeply and diligently cultivated during the autumn, winter, spring, and even summer, while the plant is sprouting, growing, and even maturing, are at once the feeding ground of the growing crop, and the store-house of food for the triplet rows of plants which next year they are to bear. These triplet rows thus yield a good average crop per acre annually and perpetually on what is really the moiety of the acre where they grow. That is the fact. Why is it not more generally acted on? It is not incredible. These fallow intervals, though unmanured directly by the hand of man, are indirectly abundantly supplied with the food the wheat-plant needs. Both ammoniacal manures and mineral manures are added in abundance. That the fertility of the soil is unimpaired is proved by the increasing crops it yields. The deep and frequent tillage brings the matter of the subsoil and the soil more thoroughly under the action of the rain water and the air, and the silicates, and phosphates, and alkalies, of which the store is practically inexhaustible, are made ready in abundance for the use of the growing plant. The porous and friable condition of the land, too, under this treatment is just such as enables the absorption and retention of the largest quantity of the ammonia of the air, and this accordingly is also furnished in abundance to the growing plant, as well as stored up for the next year's crop. There is thus nothing in the experience, when considered along with the practice, rendering it inherently improbable; or requiring us to look with more than

A Word in Season, or How to Grow Wheat with Profit. By the author of 'Lois-Weedon Husbandry.' Sixteenth edition. J. Ridgway, Piccadilly.

ordinary care for the mistake which has been made. We cannot but believe that an experience at once so consistent and so remarkable will ultimately be more generally copied." FALSE IMPRISONMENT is an unlawful arresting or imprisoning, either without just cause, or without proper legal process. In whatever manner the unlawful detention arises, it is false imprisonment, for which an action for damages lies.

When erroneous process issues out of a court having jurisdiction in the matter, a bailiff or officer who arrests a party in execution of it may excuse himself in an action for false imprisonment by showing that the court had jurisdiction; but if the court out of which the process issues has no proper cognisance of the cause, then, as the whole proceedings are coram non judice, the officer will be liable.

If an arrest be made by one who is not a legal officer, or who has not at the time a warrant, or is not named in it, it is a false imprisonment, for which an action lies. If a sheriff or his bailiff arrest a man out of his county, or upon a warrant of a justice whose commission has expired, or arrests the wrong party, he is liable.

Mere irregularities in lawful process may constitute false imprisonment; but in such cases the judges will discharge the party upon condition of his waiving his right of action.

All persons concerned in a wrongful imprisonment are liable in an action of false imprisonment, and the party aggrieved may sue any one of them. Thus, if the plaintiff in a suit brings an unlawful warrant to the sheriff, or if he bring a good warrant but direct the sheriff to the wrong man, the action will lie against both.

Sheriffs and their officers, high bailiffs of the county courts, constables, and other peace officers, are however protected from the consequences of a mistake by a great variety of statutes.

FALSE POSITION, a rule of arithmetic, which, though originally applied to such questions as are soluble by equations of the first degree, has been in modern writings, and upon principles explained in APPROXIMATION and INTERPOLATION applied to equations of all degrees. It is however of very little use, though of some notoriety, and a general explanation will be sufficient.

Let there be a function of x, x, which it is desired to make equal to a, and firstly, let this function be such that successive equal increments added to the value of a produce successive equal increments (or decrements) in the value of c (which is, in fact, supposing that ox is of the form mr + n): assume two values for x, say p and q, and let the corresponding values of or be P and Q. If then (to use the easiest form of speech) a uniform increase of r is accompanied by a uniform increase of px, and if x represent the value which makes or equal to a, it follows that the interval between P and Q bears to that between p and q the same proportion as the interval between P and a bears to that between p and x. Or a can be obtained from the proportion P — Q : p − q :: P~a: p − x.

-

If the preceding be not easily understood, the same proportion may be immediately deduced from

mp + n = г, mq + n = Q, mx + n = a

which follow from the several hypotheses made.

When x and x do not increase uniformly together, it is nevertheless true that they do so nearly when the successive increments added to x are very small. If then p and q can be found so that P and Q are near to a, the use of the preceding proportion will produce a value of x which is nearer the truth than either p or q, and may be substituted for either in a repetition of the process, which will then produce a still nearer value.

The rule of False Position, as thus extended, is simply Briggs's and Newton's well-known method of approximating to the roots of equations, with this difference, that instead of the differential coefficient of x, the approximation (PQ) ÷ (p-q) is used. The equation of the first degree is one in which either method will bring an accurate result in one process; but the notoriety of the rule of False Position arose out of its appearing that a couple of errors, or wrong solutions, were made infallibly to give the right result: and thus it is that Recorde says he can solve mathematical questions by taking the answers of any children or idiots who may be in the room. To persons ignorant of algebra there seems to be a mystery in the being able to make any two guesses, however remote, to discover the truth. Thus, what is that number whose half, third, and fourth, together with 10, make 62? Make any guess, say 12: the half, third, and fourth of 12, together with 10, make 23, which is wrong. Make another guess, say 60, which produces 75, also wrong. The difference of the wrong results, 75-23 or 52, bears to the difference of the wrong assump tions, 6012, or 48, the same proportion as the excess of the result 75 over 62 (the required result) bears to the excess of 60 over the truth. But 52 48 13:12, or 12 is the excess of 60 over the truth, that is, the true answer is 48, as may easily be verified.

When the equation is of the form ma = a, one guess only will suffice. If the assumption of p give P, or if mp = P, then Pp::a: x. FALSETTO, in Music, an Italian term, signifying a false or artificial voice, produced by tightening the ligaments of the glottis, and thus the vocal compass is extended about an octave higher. The Italians call the falsetto voce di testa, or voice from the head; the natural voice voce di petto, or voice from the chest.

FAN, an instrument or machine for agitating the air by the wafting or revolving motion of a broad surface, for the purpose of producing artificial currents. Large revolving fans, driven by machinery, are frequently used either to facilitate the cooling of fluids or the process of winnowing, or as blowing-machines to urge the combustion of a fire, or to assist in ventilation. Another application of such an apparatus is for the purpose of regulating or checking, by the resistance of the air to its rapid motion, the velocity of light machinery. A familiar example of such a use is afforded by the revolving fans of a musical snuff-box.

In its more ordinary acceptation the name fan is limited to the well known instrument employed by ladies for producing refreshing coolness, the use of which, under the names flabellum or flabellulum in Latin, or pris or priorhp (diminutive, prídiov) in Greek, was well known to the ancients, whose fans, however, according to the article 'Flabellum' in the 'Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,' edited by Dr. Smith, were not, like most of those now used, 'so constructed that they might be furled, unfurled, and fluttered, nor were they even carried by the ladies themselves,' so that, as the writer of that article observes, the various manoeuvres so wittily described in the 102nd number of the 'Spectator' as the 'exercise of the fan' were wholly unknown to the ancients. From the numerous references given in the article above referred to, it would appear that while ancient fans were often of elegant forms, of delicate colours, and of costly and splendid materials, such as peacocks' feathers, they were stiff and of a fixed shape. Some were made of separate feathers joined at the base, and further united by a thread passing along their tips, and another tied to the middle of the shaft of each feather, and such

were in use in England during the reign of Elizabeth; others appear to have been made by fastening together, back to back, the two wings of a bird, and attaching a handle at their base; while others again were formed of linen stretched upon a light frame. They were usually held by female slaves, beautiful boys, or eunuchs, whose duty it was to wave them so as to produce a cooling breeze; and the employment of such attendants was not confined to ladies, for we read in Suetonius that the Emperor Augustus had a slave to fan him while asleep. Fans of a softer kind, to which the name of muscarium or μvioσóẞn was applied, were used for driving off flies from living persons, from articles of food, and from things offered in sacrifice; and another kind of fan was employed for urging the combustion of a fire, a practice which, to conclude our quotations from the source already indicated, 'gave origin among classical writers to expressions corresponding to ours, meaning to fan the flame of hope, of love, or of sedition.'

Fans are much used in China, India, and other Eastern countries, and those of the Chinese are made to fold up in the same way as those commonly used by European ladies. Among this people fans are used by both sexes, a fan enclosed in a worked silk sheath being one of their frequent accoutrements. These are of either paper or silk, but with the Chinese, as well as the Europeans, fans are sometimes made of elegantly carved or perforated slips of ivory. Whatever be the materials employed, much skill is often displayed in the decoration of fans, and in some cases artistic talent of a high order has been applied in painting them. The mode in which they are constructed to open or fold together at pleasure is too well known to need description.

FAN MANUFACTURE. The manufacture of ladies' fans is a larger department of industry than would be generally supposed. After a considerable interval, during which fans were little used, they came again into favour a few years ago; and the manufacture is conducted in France on a large scale. The firm of M. Duvelleroy at Paris, manufactures fans for the courts not only of European

countries, but for those even of Africa and Asia, amounting in some instances to the value of 1000l. each.

M. Duvelleroy employs many hundred persons. He has made it a point to grasp the two extremes of the scale in costliness as well as all intermediate degrees; for he makes fans from one halfpenny each to one thousand guineas. Every halfpenny fan goes through no less than fifteen hands: a proof that the factory system must be thoroughly carried out in that establishment. Duvelleroy's fans are sent to all parts of the world, and are now competing in the East with those of China. Spain is trying to maintain a home manufacture, but all the best specimens come from Paris. America affords the best markets, for while the ladies of North America closely imitate the fashions of Paris, those of South and tropical America are passionately fond of gorgeous fans, on which exciting scenes are painted in dazzling colours. Duvelleroy has a large corps of artists, who study the peculiar tastes of every nation in their pictures and colours.

In the manufacture of fans, the chief parts are called the handle, the brins, the panaches, the end, and the leaf. The handle is the part at which all the rest of the fan is hinged together, and which is made of ivory, wood, or any hard material. The brins, or radiants, from twelve to twenty-four in number, radiate from the handle; they are about four inches long. The ends are elastic pieces which connect the brins with the handle, and which form with them the skeleton of the fan; they are made of mother-o'-pearl, tortoise-shell, ivory, horn, ebony, bone, citron-wood, sandal-wood, or plain wood, and are rivetted with diamonds, gold, pearls, or more cheap material, according to the price. The panaches are the two outermost brins, made wider and stronger than the rest for security. The leaf is the surface of the fan, cut into the form of the segment of a circle. It is made of paper, of cabretille (very delicate kid-skin), vellum, parchment, satin, tulle, gauze, or crêpe, according to circumstances. There are as many folds or plaits given to this leaf as there are brins; and the brins govern the opening and closing of the leaf.

It is in the painting and decorating of the leaf that the costliness of the best fans chiefly consists. Duvelleroy has a number of highly paid and accomplished artists engaged in this department. The fans sent by that firm to the Great Exhibitions in London in 1851, and Paris in 1855, excited great attention.

FANARIOTES, a name formerly applied to the inhabitants of the Fanar or Greek quarter of Constantinople. After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, the Greeks of the Fanar, taking advantage of the ignorance of the Turks, succeeded in rendering themselves necessary to the ministers of the Porte as translators, and to other Turkish grandees as secretaries, agents, and men of business in general. They were all comprised under the general denomination of Grammatikoi, clerks or scribes. At first they were not distinguished from common servants; and the office of the translator to the Sublime Porte conferred no consideration on the individual who held it. The Greek translator explained to the Turkish ministers the contents of a foreign despatch, after which he retired into the great hall of the palace, where he waited with other menials till his masters might want him.

In the year 1669 a Fanariot, named Panayotaki, was first appointed official dragoman, and subsequently all the dragomen were taken from their class. The Fanariotes being thus the only agents of communication betwixt the Porte and the European governments, necessarily acquired a great influence over the Turkish government, and they took good care to turn it to their own advantage. In the beginning of the 18th century the Fanariotes succeeded by their intrigues in prevailing on the Turkish government to choose from among them the Hospodars or princes of Moldavia and Wallachia, which dignities had been hitherto bestowed on natives of the above-mentioned provinces. Mavrocordato was the first Greek who was nominated Hospodar of Wallachia in 1711. A crowd of Fanariotes always followed the new Hospodars, who employed them in different offices in their respective provinces, where they became notorious for their unprincipled exactions, employing every means, however odious, to acquire as much wealth as possible during their short and precarious tenure of office. The Hospodars, who partook of this ill-gotten wealth, countenanced and protected them in all their proceedings. The mode of government has been since changed in the above-mentioned provinces.

These were not the only sources of wealth to the Fanariote families: the bankers of the Fanar disposed of the greater part of the military and civil appointments in the Ottoman empire, through corrupt influences. An interesting picture of the Fanariotes is given in Mr. Hope's celebrated novel Anastasius; or, the Memoirs of a Greck;' as well as in the Essai sur les Fanariotes,' by Marco Zallony; and in Von Hammer's 'Constantinople and the Bosphorus.'

The events which have followed the last Greek revolution, and the subsequent events in the Turkish empire have almost entirely annihilated the Fanariotes as a class, though some Greek families are still distinguished by the name.

FANCY, a corruption of phantasy (pavracía), which term in ancient philosophy indicated the sensuous appearance of an object, and in a general sense was used as co-extensive with conception, or the faculty by which man reproduces images of objects either absent or present, without an immediate impression on the organs of sensation. In later times its signification has been greatly narrowed, and it is now limited