never escape, but were sometimes spared upon submission; at others, hanged for example. He would cherish a plot for years together, admitting the conspirators to his own and the queen's presence familiarly, but dogging them out watchfully." Such was the policy of this statesman, who is stated to have maintained fifty-three agents and eighteen spies in foreign courts. In 1581, he went on a second embassy to France, to treat of a marriage between Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou; and, in 1583, he was sent to the court of James VI of Scotland, whence he is said to have brought back a higher opinion of the abilities of the future sovereign of Britain than the event justified. He acted a very important, but by no means honorable part, in the detection of Babington's plot against the life of the queen, in 1586, and in the subsequent proceedings against Mary, queen of Scots. His death took place in April, 1590, in the ninetieth year of his age; and his remains were interred privately, by night, in St. Paul's church, apprehensions being entertained that his corpse might be arrested on account of his debts. An account of his negotiations and his despatches from France appeared under the title of the Complete Ambassador (1655, folio); and a work called Arcana Aulica has been ascribed to him, but its authenticity is questionable.

WALTHAM; a post-town in Middlesex county, Massachusetts, on the north side of Charles river, which separates it from Newton; ten miles west of Boston, thirty-four east by north from Worcester, 426 miles from Washington: population, in 1820, 1677; in 1830, 1859. It is a pleasant town, and contains two Congregational meeting-houses, and three cotton manufactories, which are among the most extensive and best conducted establishments of the kind in this country.' They belong to a company of gentlemen residing principally in Boston. The capital stock amounts to $600,000, three fourths of which are vested in mill privileges on Charles river, land, houses, three brick manufactories, and machinery, comprising 8064 spindles and 231 looms. These works employ about 400 persons, principally females, and from 60 to 80 men in making machinery. The quantity of cotton annually used amounts to about 700,000 pounds, and the cloth made to 2,000,000 yards. These works were commenced in 1814; the whole completed in 1821. There are also bleaching works, carried by steam, at which 6

VOL. XIII.

two tons of goods are daily bleached, calendered and packed. There are two schools supported by the proprietors of the factories, at which instruction is regularly provided without charge.

WALTHER OF the VogelweIDE, one of the most eminent old German lyric poets of the class of Minnesingers (q. v.), was descended from a noble, but not wealthy family, whose castle, Vogelweide, is supposed to have been situated in Upper Thurgau. Walther resided at the court of Frederic, the eldest son of Leopold VI, duke of Austria and Stiria. Frederic took the cross in 1195, departed for Palestine in 1197, and died the ensuing year, on the crusade. Walther seems to have left the court of Vienna immediately after the loss of his royal patron. After the murder of Philip of Suabia, in 1208, he set out on his wanderings. At the court of Philip Augustus, king of France, he seems to have met with a kind reception; but he remained longest at the splendid court of the landgrave of Thuringia, who had always around him a circle of poets, and instituted that celebrated poetic contest, the war on the Wartburg (1207), in which Walther took part. Walther shows himself, in his political poems, a warm defender of the imperial power and honor, against the encroachments of the clergy and their head in Rome. Some time after the arrival of Frederic II in Germany, we find Walther again at the court of Vienna, where he was kindly treated by Leopold VII. After Leopold's death, in 1230, Walther seems to have left the court of Vienna, of the decline of which he complains; and of the further events of his life, we only know that he was engaged in a crusade, probably the one undertaken by the emperor Frederic II, to Palestine, in 1227. The year in which Walther died is as uncertain as that of his birth; he must have lived, however, till after 1230. The latter years of his life were devoted to a pious contemplation of the world, of death, and eternity. His poems, all of them lyric, may be found in the manuscript collections of the Minnesingers. (q. v.) Lachmann has published them according to the original text (Berlin, 1827). Akland has given an account of the life and character of this poet under the title Walther von der Vogelweide, etc. (Stuttgart, 1822).

WALTON, Isaak, an ingenious and amusing writer, was born at Stafford, in August, 1593. He was probably of low parentage, for he settled in London as a

semster or milliner and linen-draper, and kept a shop in Fleet street. About 1632, he married the sister of bishop Ken, and, in the beginning of the civil wars, he removed from the metropolis. His death took place at Winchester, in 1683. He was the editor of several publications, and gained considerable celebrity by a treatise entitled the Complete Angler, or the Contemplative Man's Recreation, which has passed through numerous editions; and his Biographical Menoirs of bishop Sanderson, Hooker, sir H. Wotton, George Herbert, and doctor Donne, which have attained an equal share of popularity. Though possessed of much general information, Walton made no pretensions to learning; and the charm of his writings depends on the air of verisimilitude and unaffected benevolence which they exhibit. Some short pieces of poetry are interspersed in his works, which evince much taste and feeling.

WALTON, Brian; a learned divine and critic, born about 1600, and educated at Cambridge, where he took the degree of master of arts, in 1623. Removing to London, he obtained a rectory in 1626, and, ten years after, was instituted to the rectory of St. Giles's in the fields. In 1639, he commenced doctor of divinity.. In the civil wars, he favored the royal cause, and was consequently obliged to take shelter at Oxford. There he formed the scheme of a Polyglot Bible, to which he owes his literary reputation. This work was completed and published in six volumes, folio, in 1657, under the following title: Biblia Sacra Polyglotta complectentia (textus originales) Hebraicum, cum Pentateucho Samaritano, Chaldaicum, Græcum (versionumque antiquarum), Samaritana, Grace LXX Interpp., Chaldaica, Syriaca, Arabica, Ethiopica, Persica, Vulg. Lat. quicquid comparari poterat : cum Textuum et Versionum Orientalium Translationibus Latinis. Doctor Walton had several assistants in his laborious undertaking, of whom the principal was doctor Edmund Castell. On the restoration of Charles II, to whom he presented his Bible, with a new dedication (the original one to Oliver Cromwell having been cancelled), he was made one of the royal chaplains; and, in 1660, he was raised to the bishopric of Chester. His death took place in London, 1661.

WALTON, George, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Frederic county, Virginia, about the year 1740. He possessed an eager desire of

knowledge, and devoted to its acquisition all the moments he could spare from his early occupation as an apprentice to a carpenter. At the expiration of his term of service, he removed to Georgia, where he applied himself to the study of the law, and, in 1774, was admitted to the bar. Among the patriots who assembled at the "liberty pole," at Tondee's tavern, Savannah, to devise measures of resistance to the encroachments of England, he appeared, and took a prominent part. În January, 1775, he was chosen a member of a committee appointed to prepare a petition to the king; and, in February, 1776, he was elected one of the Georgia delegation to the national congress, and continued a member of that body, with little intermission, until 1781. In December, 1778, he was appointed colonel in the inilitia, and received a wound in the thigh, during the defence of Savannah. He was made prisoner, but exchanged in September, 1779. He was twice chosen governor of the state, once a senator of the U. States, and, at four different periods, a judge of the superior courts, which last office he held fifteen years, until his death, Feb. 2, 1804. His powers were strong, and his temperament ardent.

WALTZ (German Walzer, literally roller); a national German dance, common, however, among other nations of the continent, as Spain, &c., and of late introduced into England and the U. States. A waltz ought to be danced with much grace and precision; and the first note of each bar (the music being always written in or time) should be distinct,

3 3

It

The

and longer than the two others. is a mistake to suppose that the waltz music is always gay. The waltz of the north of Germany was grave and slow, whilst that of the south, particularly of Vienna, is gay, and may degenerate into a bacchanalian swiftness. quick, gay waltz is the most common at present. Several waltz tunes are now often united, to prevent monotony. One of the most important rules for waltzing well, yet often neglected by foreigners, is, that both the dancers should stand parallel, and directly opposite each other.

WAMPUM (from wampi or wompi, signifying, in the Massachusetts Indian language, white, the color of the shells most frequent in wampum belts); shells, or strings of shells, used, by the American Indians, as money. These, when united, forni a broad belt, which is worn as an ornament or girdle. It is sometimes called wam

WANDERING; a technical term with German mechanics, to denote their custom of travelling into foreign countries after finishing their apprenticeship. Formerly, they were bound by law, in all German states, to travel in this way, otherwise they could not make their masterpieces; that is, those specimens of their skill, by which they proved to the corporation that they were fit to become masters, and which they are still bound to exhibit in several parts of Germany where corporations exist. Whether this habit of wandering arose from the universal disposition of the Germans for travelling into foreign countries, which scatters German mechanics all over the world, or from the unsettled habits of many classes in the middle ages, as the knights, the vacantivi (see School, vol. xi, p. 251), or the frequent campaigns of the Germans in Italy, where the servants of the noblemen learned many arts not known in Germany, we cannot here discuss. In summer, mechanics may always be seen on the roads in Germany, carrying knapsacks and sometimes a few tools. They receive dinner and lodging, or money, from the corporation in each place, or from the master-workmen, if there are only a few in a place. Many peculiarities and absurdities are connected with this receiving of presents. Instead of a passport, they carry wanderingbooks," so called, which must be kept in good order, and shown to the police of the places through which they pass.

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WANKER, Ferdinand Geminian, doctor of theology, professor of moral philosophy in the university of Freiburg, was born in 1758, in Freiburg, in the Brisgau, was made professor of morals in 1788, and elected archbishop, but died in 1824, before the papal confirmation arrived from Rome. His works would prove instructive to many Catholics who believe that they abandon their faith if they give up certain things which are inconsistent with the present state of intelligence, or with the testimony of history. Among his works are the following:-On Reason and Revelation, with a View to the Moral Wants of Mankind (Vienna, 1802, 2d ed., Freiburg); On the Matrimonial Tie, considered with Respect to Natural Law and Pure Morality (1810); and System of Christian Morals.

WAPATOO ISLAND; an island of North America, formed by the junction of the

Multnomah with the Columbia, twenty miles long and ten broad. Its numerous ponds abound with the common arrowhead (sagittaria sagittifolia), to the root of which is attached a bulb, growing in the mud. This bulb, to which the Indians give the name of wapatoo, is the great article of food, and almost the staple article of commerce on the Columbia. It is never out of season, so that, at all times of the year, the valley is frequented by the neighboring Indians, who come to gather it. It is collected chiefly by the women, who take a light canoe in a pond where the water is as high as the breast, and, by means of their toes, separate the root from the bulb, which, on being freed from the mud, rises immediately to the surface of the water, and is thrown into the canoe. This plant is found through the whole extent of the Columbia valley, but does not grow farther eastward.

WAPPING; a village and parish of England, in Middlesex, on the north bank of the Thames, one of the out-parishes of London, on the east side of the city, inhabited chiefly by persons employed in trade, connected with the shipping of the port of London; population, 5889. Here are the London docks, St. Catharine's docks, &c., and the stupendous warehouses belong to the custom-house, &c. (See Docks, and London.)

WAR, in general; a state of hostility and violence between individuals, or, in a more common sense, between sovereign nations, who, having no superior power to which to appeal for the decision of their disputes, have recourse to force and arms. In contradistinction to international or public war, civil war designates a similar state of violence existing between different portions or members of the same nation. International wars are generally distinguished into offensive wars, or wars of attack, and defensive wars, or wars of defence. The party which carries on what is called an offensive war is not, however, by any means, always the original author of the hostile measures, since the seeming assailant is often forced into his position by the violation of his rights, or the menacing posture of the other party. It is well known that both belligerents aim to acquire the credit of acting on the defensive, partly to conciliate public opinion, which, though often mistakenly, commonly pronounces a defensive war justifiable, and condemns an offensive war; and sometimes, also, to secure the assistance of foreign powers, which has been guarantied, by treaty, to

one or both parties, who may become the object of offensive measures. The right of declaring war, in monarchical governments, is commonly in the king, as the actual sovereign power, or the head of the executive, as in constitutional monarchies. In England and France, the king has the right to declare war and make peace; but this power is virtually controlled by the legislative power to grant or withhold supplies. In the U. States, the constitution provides (art. 1, sec. 8) that the congress shall have power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, raise and support armies, and provide and maintain a navy. It is not, in modern times, a common practice to make a formal declaration of war, or official previous notice to the enemy ; but a domestic manifesto of the sovereign to his subjects, or to the nation, is considered as sufficient to apprize neutrals that a war actually exists. Thus, in the war between England and France, in 1778, the recalling of the British minister from Paris was considered the first public act of hostility; and there was no other declaration of war. So, in the war of 1812, between Great Britain and the U. States, hostilities were commenced, on our part, as soon as the necessary act of congress was passed, without waiting to communicate our intentions to the English government. Individuals have no right to commit acts of hostility, except in self-defence, without a commission from the proper authorities, and are liable to be treated as pirates and robbers if they undertake hostilities on their own responsibility. (See Privateers, and Prize.) On the rights and duties of belligerents in general, see the articles Nations, Law of; and Conquest. See, likewise, Soldiers, Strategy, Military Sciences, Army, Navy, Tirailleurs, &c.

War, Private, or Club-Law (jus manuarium; in German, Faustrecht, fist-law). Throughout the countries which composed the Carlovingian empire, no feudal right was more universally established and exercised than that of private war, the immediate cause and systematic commencement of which are sufficiently to be found in the anarchy of the ninth and tenth centuries. During the abeyance of all regal or national authority, the great feudatories were, in fact, in the condition of foreign powers to each other: they were without any common superior jurisdiction, to which, had they been inclined, they could appeal for the redress of injuries; and the power of the sword alone remained to decide their quarrels.

(See Middle Ages, and Feudal System.) Their example was followed by their subvassals, and the countries of Europe were perpetually ravaged with internal hostilities. In England alone, of all feudal countries, this scourge was little felt; and, though it cannot be said that the practice of private wars was unknown under the Norman kings, yet the right of waging these feuds was never recognised: their occurrence was denounced, and sometimes punished, as an offence against the king's peace, that is, against the supreme authority of the crown. (See Hallam's Middle Ages, vol. ii, chap. 8.) By the feudal customs of the continent, the right of private war was extended to all persons of noble quality, or, in other words, to all possessors of fiefs on knightly tenure. But they must be equal, in the scale of infeudation, with their adversaries; nor did every civil cause of offence justify an appeal to arms, but such deadly injuries only as are usually deemed capital crimes in modern jurisprudence, or such outrageous insults as no knight might endure. When the war was once begun, it might legally be espoused by the relations of both parties; and it was even incumbent on them, in some cases, to give aid in the quarrel, under pain of forfeiting the claims and inheritance of kindred. Still more were the vassals of each combatant involved in the contest, since, by the very essence of the feudal obligations, they were bound to defend and assist their lords. The means by which this pernicious custom was finally abrogated, were various. The most remarkable was the truce of God (q. v.), by which men were forbidden to assail their adversaries during any of the holy festivals, and also during the interval between every Wednesday evening and Monday morning, as embracing those days of the week which had been sanctified by the passion and resurrection of the Redeemer. At first, the truce of God, extending from France, was adopted throughout Europe; but, notwithstanding the anxiety of the church, and repeated decrees of popes and councils, its provisions appear to have been little regarded. The interposition of royal authority was necessary to restrain, and finally to extinguish, these bloody feuds; and the first step towards the accomplishment of this object dates from the ordinance of Louis IX, forbidding, under penalty of treason, the commencement of any private war until forty days after the commission of the act in which the quarrel had originated.

The opportunities of accommodation between the parties, given by this edict, which was known under the name of the king's pace, or royal truce, appear to have contributed essentially to diminish the number of private wars in France; and the endeavors of St. Louis, being followed up by Philip the Fair, and successfully completed by Charles VI and Louis XI, led, soon after the middle of the fifteenth century, to the total abolition of the practice in that country. In Germany, truces of this kind (called landfriede, peace of the land) were repeatedly declared for a certain period, during which private war was illegal. But the circumstance that Germany always continued to be divided among a great number of petty but independent sovereign princes, retarded the accomplishment of the efforts of the clergy and the emperors to effect the entire abolition of the practice. In 1486, a landfriede of ten years, the longest that had ever been established, was proclaimed; and it was soon followed by the perpetual peace (ewiger landfriede), entirely forbidding private war. (See Chamber, Imperial, and German Empire.) WAR, NORTHERN. (See Northern War.) WAR OF 1812-15. (See RussianGerman War.)

WAR OF THIRTY YEARS. (See Thirty Years' War.)

WAR, PEASANTS' or RURAL. (See Peasants' War.)

WARBECK, Perkin; an individual who played a singular part in the reign of Henry VII, giving himself out as the second son of Edward IV, who was supposed to have been murdered, in the Tower, by Richard III. It is difficult, at this distance of time, to decide upon his pretensions; but his ill success has set him down with posterity as an impostor. He was first heard of at the court of the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV, about the year 1490, when all were struck with his resemblance to that prince. Some authors have asserted that he was the natural son of Edward. Supported by the duchess of Burgundy in his pretensions, Warbeck at length (1496) ventured to make a descent upon England; but, being worsted in the attempt, he retired to Scotland, where he was well received by the king, who gave him the hand of Catharine Gordon, a young lady akin to the royal family. The Scotch king was, however, soon after prevailed upon to abandon his cause; and Warbeck landed in Cornwall, where he was proclaimed king by the name of Richard IV.

But, while yet at the head of 10,000 men, he suddenly deserted his followers, on the approach of Henry, and took refuge in the sanctuary of Beaulieu. Having finally surrendered himself into the hands of the king, he was obliged to read a confession of his imposture, while standing in the stocks, and then thrown into the Tower (1499). Here he met with Edward Plantagenet, earl of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence, and rightful heir to the crown, who had been a prisoner there for fifteen years. The unhappy boy listened with eagerness to the projects, suggested by Warbeck, for their deliverance, and they were both charged with a conspiracy to set themselves free, by seducing some of the guards and destroying the rest. Warbeck seems to have been excited, by the king, to inveigle Warwick into acts which would give a pretence for effecting his death. Bacon darkly hints, that Ferdinand of Spain was unwilling to assent to the marriage between his daughter, the unfortunate Catharine, and Arthur, prince of Wales, while the earl of Warwick lived. However this may be, Warbeck was convicted of treason, and hanged at Tyburn (1499); and Warwick was likewise convicted of high treason, by a jury of peers, and put to death for an offence which his faculties did not enable him to comprehend. Rey (Essais Historiques et Critiques sur Richard III, Paris, 1818) maintains that Warbeck was the son and lawful heir of Edward IV.

WARBURTON, William, a celebrated prelate of the English church, born at Newark-upon-Trent, in Nottinghamshire, in 1698, was the second son of an attorney, and, after being educated at school, was, in 1714, articled to an attorney at East Markham, in his native county. After completing a clerkship of five years, he was admitted in one of the courts at Westminster, and, returning to Newark, he engaged in legal practice. Not finding the profession adapted to his taste or talents, he relinquished it, and, in 1723, took deacon's orders in the church. His first work, consisting of Miscellaneous Translations, in Prose and Verse, from Roman authors, was published with a Latin dedication to sir George Sutton, who, in 1726, bestowed on him a small vicarage. Shortly after, he visited London, and formed an acquaintance with some of the inferior wits of that period, among whom was Theobald, then engaged on an edition of Shakspeare, to which Warburton became a contributor. In 1727, he began to distinguish himself