Borrow, a translation of Scandinavian songs. His translations are generally faithful and spirited.

BOYLE, Charles. (See Orrery, Earl of.)
BRANK. (See Buckwheat.)
BRANT. (See Goose.)

BREAKWATER. (See Delaware Breakwater.)

BRIDGEWATER, DUKE OF. (See Egerton, Francis.)

BRONCHOTOMY. (See Tracheotomy.) BROOKE, LORD. (See Greville.) BROUCOLACAS. (See Vampyre.) BROUSSAIS, Francis Joseph Victor, a celebrated French medical writer and physician, was born at St. Malo, in 1772, and pursued his classical studies at the college of Dinan. On the breaking out of the revolution, he served upwards of a year as a grenadier, and was afterwards employed for three years, as surgeon's mate, in the hospitals at Brest and in the navy. His father, a surgeon, had instructed him in surgery, and he had studied anatomy at Brest. Bichat had gone through a similar course of education, having been an anatomist, and a surgeon, before he had become a physician. Broussais, after having served two years more as assistant surgeon, retired from the service in 1798, and devoted himself to the study of botany, materia medica, and of medical works. The next year, he went to Paris, and spent four years there in attending lectures on the medical sciences, and, having received the degree of doctor of medicine, continued in the capital for two years, occupying himself with the study of medical works. At the expiration of that time, he obtained the post of physician in the army, and spent three years in that employment. The state of his health then obliged him to return to Paris, where he published his Histoire des Phlegmasies, ou Inflammations chroniques (2 vols., 8vo., 1808). He soon after resumed his post in the army, and was surgeon in chief to the army in Spain for six years, constantly engaged in collecting new results from his observations, and measuring theories by their application to practice. In 1814, M. Broussais returned to Paris, and was appointed second professor at the hospital Val de Grace, and, in 1820, chief physician and first professor at the experimental military hospital of Paris. In 1817 appeared the second edition of his Histoire des Phlegmasies chroniques, and his Examen de la Doctrine médicale généralement adoptée, et des Systèmes modernes de Nosologie. These, with his Treatise on

Physiology applied to Pathology, contain his peculiar system, known under the title of physiological medicine. The first of these works displays extensive knowledge and sound judgment; the second is distinguished for the boldness of its views, and its paradoxical and sophistical spirit. In considering Broussais's system, it is to be borne in mind, that the French school of practical medicine had followed the Pinelian system, which laid particular stress upon the importance of the different tissues of the body in disease, and had found a follower and perfecter in the celebrated Bichat. (See Bichat, in this Appendix.) Broussais applied Bichat's doctrine of the life of the different tissues to the diseases of these parts, and particularly to their inflammations, but extended this principle much too far. This system corresponds in many points, particularly as laid down in the Examen, with the views of Brown (see Brown, John), although Broussais himself affects to have nothing in common with the Brunonian system. According to Broussais, life consists merely in the possibility and the necessity of excitement, or in irritability, and is preserved only when a proper degree of irritability exists. The excitation is sometimes too powerful (surexcitation), sometimes too feeble (adynamie), but the former is more common than the latter. But in no case are these states, at least primarily, general throughout the system; for the body consists of a great number of organs and tissues, endowed with very different degrees of sensibility, and therefore very differently affected by the same external circumstances. They are all comprised in the three systems, the sanguineous, the lymphatic and the nervous. In all cases, therefore, it is only some particular organ which is diseased, the others being affected by sympathy, and each in a peculiar manner, according to the nature of its tissue, and its specific sensibility. There is no such thing as a general disease, independent of the primary disease of a particular organ; and to determine that organ is the proper purpose of examination. The disease of a particular organ is communicated by sympathy, because the sanguineous and nervous systems are connected together in the most intimate manner, by their minutest ramifications. These sympathies are partly organic, and partly relative (sympathies de relation), the former manifesting themselves in the circulatory, secretory and other vital functions, the latter in the sphere of vol

untary motion, sensibility, and mental activity. Upon the sympathies depend the indications of the crisis and metastasis, both of which are accidental, and not necessary phenomena, the former indicative of healthy, the latter of morbid sympathies. The sympathetic inflammations of the stomach and small intestines, of the heart and of the brain, are the most common. In the first case, the result is gastro-enteritis; in the second, fever; in the third, neurosis. The gastroenteritis, being often primary, as well as sympathetic, in its origin, is the most common of diseases, and is, according to Broussais's expression, la base de la pathologie. The therapeutic principles of the system are exceedingly simple, leaving little to nature, and considering the method of expecting the crisis not only inefficacious, but injurious, as allowing the disease to confirm and develope itself. Since, in most diseases, there is an inflammation of some particular organ, either primary or secondary, the topical application of antiphlogistics is the first remedy to be employed. As the crisis should be anticipated, the remedy should be powerful; andas gastro-enteritis occurs in almost all diseases, the application of leeches to the region of the stomach is one of the most universal of remedies. Abstinence, diluents, and, in rare cases, general bloodletting, are to be employed as auxiliaries. The stimulant method is rarely indicated, as cases of primary debility are very rare. This system, of which we have here only sketched the outlines, has attracted much attention in France; but, although it has effected some good, does not appear likely to be permanently received. Besides the works of Broussais, we would refer to Spitta's Nova Doctrina Pathologica Epitome (Göttingen, 1822); see, also, Les Médicins Français Contemporains (1827 and 1828), which contains a notice of Broussais.

BROWN UNIVERSITY. (See Providence.) BRUNSWICK. To what has been said of the duchy of Brunswick in the body of the work, we add a short account of the late events in that state, taken from the American Annual Register for 1830 -1831. "The king of England had been the guardian of the minority of the duke of Brunswick; and while exercising that office, it had become necessary to make the institutions of the duchy conform to the change in the circumstances of Germany. To the abolition of the patrimonial jurisdictions, as well as to many arrangements personal to himself,

the young duke, on coming of age, objected; and, not content with repudiating the acts of his guardian, he published the most abusive manifestoes against George IV and count Munster, the Hanoverian minister of state, by whom the king's German affairs were principally managed. His royal highness even condescended to send, through the celebrated horse-dealer Tattersall, a challenge to count Munster, to meet him in single combat. The proceedings of the duke of Brunswick were brought to the notice of the diet by the king of England, in his character of king of Hanover; and, as the former prince refused the mediation of Austria and Prussia, and, though only the sovereign of 200,000 subjects, declared that he would rather try the fortune of war than submit to any reconciliation, the assembly of the confederacy had no ground for refusing its interposition. In 1829, every point in controversy was decided against the duke; and he, having declined making an apology, withdrawing his offensive publications, or doing any thing else that was required of him, the diet took, in the following year (1830), efficient means to enforce its decree. The king of Saxony was about moving his troops towards Brunswick, when the death of the king of England suspended his arrangements; and the subsequent conduct of the duke, within his own dominions, rendered unnecessary the further action of any external force. As his royal highness had manifested no more wisdom in the government of his duchy than in his transactions abroad, he was naturally apprehensive lest the popular movements which occurred in France and Belgium, during the summer of 1830, should be imitated elsewhere to his prejudice. To guard against an insurrection in his capital, he had placed cannon in several parts of the town; but, on his return from the theatre on the 6th of September, he was attacked by the mob, from whose fury he only escaped by promising to comply with all their demands. These were, first, the removal of the cannon; second, the confirmation of the constitution granted under the guardianship of the king of England; third, a stipulation not to run away, to evade the edict of the diet; fourth, not to send away his money. The duke, notwithstanding his forced assent, having refused, the next morning, to fulfil his pledge, and intimated that he should employ the cannon to maintain his authority, the insurrectionists proceeded to substantiate their claims by force. The military refused to

fire on the citizens: the duke's palace was burned; and he escaped to the frontiers. The brother of the duke was immediately proclaimed sovereign; and he continues to reign as such, with the concurrence of all the principal courts.

BUCKEYE. (See Horse-Chestnut.)
BUCKHURST. (See Sackville.)

(See Sheffield.)

BUDESSIN. (See Bautzen.) BULL and BEAR; terms used on the London stock exchange. (See Stock Exchange.)

BULWER, Edward Earle Lytton, the son of general Bulwer, was born in 1803, and is descended of an old and wealthy family, in the county of Norfolk. His father died in 1806, and his education was superintended by his mother. He entered the university of Cambridge, and, while there, gained a prize for a poem on sculpture. After some metrical productions, Weeds and Wildflowers (1826), and O'Neill or the Rebel (1827), he published his first prose work, the novel called Falkland (1827); and in 1828 appeared his Pelham, which first attracted much attention to him. This was followed, in 1829, by the Disowned, and Devereux, the latter of which is a historical romance. Paul Clifford (1830) is a political satire. In 1831, he published a satire in verse, the Siamese Twins, and, in 1832, his novel of Eugene Aram. Since 1832, he has been the editor of the New Monthly Magazine. He is now a member of parliament. His brother Henry has been in parliament a number of years. Bulwer's novels contain much vigorous painting of scenes and characters, disfigured by a too ambitious style. Their moral tone is low, and their general tendency to make profligacy agreeable.

BURNOUF, Eugène, orientalist at Paris, and secretary of the Asiatic society there, occupies himself chiefly with the study of Indian languages and ancient Persian. He first made himself known by a work which he published in connexion with professor Lassen, in Bonn-Essai sur le Pali, ou Langue sacrée de la Presque ile audelà du Gange (Paris, 1828), in which he treats of the Pali language, a branch of the Sanscrit, in which the sacred books of the Buddhists, in Ceylon and the Birman empire, are written. The Pali was, until then, almost entirely unknown. In the Journal Asiatique, Burnouf published several interesting essays, e. g. on the Tainul alphabet (April, 1818), on some geo

du Roi, avec un Commentaire, une Traduction Nouvelle et un Mémoire sur la Langue Zende considérée dans ses Rapports avec le Sanskrit et les anciens Idiomes de l'Europe. In May, 1832, eight numbers of the Zend text had appeared (lithographed, folio). A specimen of the commentary which is to follow, has appeared in the Journal Asiatique (May, 1829); and Bopp (q. v.) has, in the mean time, communicated several important observations on the Zend language, in the Annals for Scientific Criticism (in German), as the Zend text, now published, renders the study of this language practicable. The resemblance of the Zend to the Sanscrit, but at the same time its independent character, are becoming more and more apparent. In 1832, Burnouf was elected member of the academy of inscriptions.

BURR, Aaron, president of the college at Princeton, New Jersey, was born at Fairfield, Connecticut, in 1714, and graduated at Yale college, in 1735. In 1742, he was invested with the pastoral charge of the Presbyterian church at Newark, New Jersey, where he became conspicuous by his talents and learning. In 1748, he was elected the successor of Mr. Dickinson to the presidency of the college then at Elizabethtown, and afterwards removed to Newark, and thence to Princeton. He discharged the duties of that station with great dignity, popularity and usefulness, till his death, in September, 1757. He was distinguished for force and elegance of mind, learning, eloquence and excellence as a preacher, piety, public spirit and popularity, knowledge of human nature, polish of manners, and facility of communicating knowledge. His wife was the daughter of the reverend Jonathan Edwards, of Northampton, and possessed superior endowments, knowledge and piety. His son, Aaron Burr, became vicepresident of the U. States.

BURZENLAND. (See Cronstadt.)
BUSTAMENTE. (See Mexico, and Santa

C.

CAABA. (See KAABA.) CABBAGE-TREE. (See Palmetto.) CADET DE VAUX died in 1828. CALABASH. (See Passion-Flower.) CALCULATING MACHINE. From doctor Brewster's Natural Magic we extract the following account of the calculating machine, now preparing by Mr. Babbage for the British government:-Of all the machines which have been constructed in modern times, the calculating machine is doubtless the most extraordinary. Pieces of mechanism, for performing particular arithmetical operations, have been long ago constructed; but these bear no comparison, either in ingenuity or in magnitude, to the grand design conceived, and nearly executed, by Mr. Babbage. Great as the power of mechanism is known to be, yet we venture to say that many of the most intelligent of our readers will scarcely admit it to be possible that astronomical and navigation tables can be accurately computed by machinery; that the machine can itself correct the errors which it may commit; and that the results of its calculations, when absolutely free from error, can be printed off, without the aid of human hands, or the operation of human intelligence. All this, however, Mr. Babbage's machine can do. The calculating machine now constructing under the superintendence of the inventor, has been executed at the expense of the British government, and is, of course, their property. It consists essentially of two parts, a calculating part, and a printing part, both of which are necessary to the fulfilment of Mr. Babbage's views; for the whole advantage would be lost if the computations made by the machine were copied by human hands and transferred to types by the common process. The greater part of the calculating machinery is already constructed, and exhibits workmanship of such extraordinary skill and beauty, that nothing approaching to it has been witnessed. In order to execute it, particularly those parts of the apparatus which are dissimilar to any used in ordinary mechanical constructions, tools and machinery of great expense and complexity have been invented and constructed; and, in many instances, contrivances of singular ingenuity have been resorted to, which cannot fail to prove extensively useful in various branches of the mechanical arts. The drawings of this ma

chinery, which form a large part of the work, and on which all the contrivance has been bestowed, and all the alterations made, cover upwards of 400 square feet of surface, and are executed with extraordinary care and precision. In so complex a piece of mechanism, in which interrupted motions are propagated simultaneously along a great variety of trains of mechanism, it might have been supposed that obstructions would arise, or even incompatibilities occur, from the impracticability of foreseeing all the possible combinations of the parts; but this doubt has been entirely removed, by the constant employment of a system of mechanical notation invented by Mr. Babbage, which places distinctly in view, at every instant, the progress of motion through all the parts of this or any other machine; and, by writing down in tables the times required for all the movements, this method renders it easy to avoid all risk of two opposite actions arriving, at the same instant, at any part of the engine, In the printing part of the machine, less progress has been made in the actual execution than in the calculating part. The cause of this is the greater difficulty of its contrivance, not for transferring the computations from the calculating part to the copper or other plate destined to receive it, but for giving to the plate itself that number and variety of movements which the forms adopted in printed tables may call for in practice. The practical object of the calculating engine is to compute and print a great variety and extent of astronomical and navigation tables, which could not be done without enormous intellectual and manual labor, and which, even if executed by such labor, could not be calculated with the requisite accuracy. Mathematicians, astronomers and navigators do not require to be informed of the real value of such tables; but it may be proper to state, for the information of others, that seventeen large folio volumes of logarithmic tables alone were calculated at an enormous expense, by the French government, and that the British government regarded these tables to be of such national value. that they proposed to the French board of longitude to print an abridgment of them, at the joint expense of the two nations, and offered to advance £5000 for that purpose. Besides logarithmic tables, Mr. Babbage's machine will calculate tables of the powers and products of numbers, and all astronomical tables for determining the positions of the sun, moon

and planets; and the same mechanical principles have enabled him to integrate innumerable equations of finite differences; that is, when the equation of differences is given, he can, by setting an engine, produce, at the end of a given time, any distant term which may be required, or any succession of terms commencing at a distant point. Besides the cheapness and celerity with which this machine will perform its work, the absolute accuracy of the printed results deserves especial notice. By peculiar contrivances, any small error, produced by accidental dust, or by any slight inaccuracy in one of the wheels, is corrected as soon as it is transmitted to the next; and this is done in such a manner as effectually to prevent any accumulation of small errors from producing an erroneous figure in the result. In order to convey some idea of this stupendous undertaking, we may mention the effects produced by a small trial engine, constructed by the inventor, and by which he computed the following table from the formula x2+x+41. The figures, as they were calculated by the machine, were not exhibited to the eye, as in sliding rules, and similar instruments, but were actually presented to the eye, on two opposite sides of the machine, the number 383, for example, appearing in figures before the person employed in copying.

tained for any length of time; and it is probable that few writers are able to copy with equal speed for many hours together. Some of that class of individuals who envy all great men, and deny all great inventions, have ignorantly stated that Mr. Babbage's invention is not new. The same persons, had it suited their purpose, would have maintained that the invention of spectacles was an anticipation of the telescope; but even this is more true than the allegation, that the arithmetical machines of Pascal and others were the types of Mr. Babbage's engine. The object of these machines was entirely dif ferent. Their highest functions were to perform the operations of common arithmetic. Mr. Babbage's engine, it is true, can perform these operations also, and can extract the roots of numbers, and approximate to the roots of equations, and even to their impossible roots. But this is not its object. Its function, in contradistinction to that of all other contrivances for calculating, is to embody in machinery the method of differences, which has never before been done; and the effects which it is capable of producing, and the works which, in the course of a few years, we expect to see it execute, will place it at an infinite distance from all other efforts of mechanical genius.* CALICO-BUSH. (See Kalmia.) CALIYUG. (See Epoch.)

CAMARILLA; a word first used in Spain,

41 131 383

797

1373

1163

1847

1231 1933 1301 2021

83 281 641 97 313 691 113 347 743 While the machine was occupied in calculating this table, a friend of the inventor undertook to write down the numbers as they appeared. In consequence of the copyist writing quickly, he rather more than kept pace with the engine; but as soon as five figures appeared, the machine was at least equal in speed to the writer. At another trial, thirty-two numbers of the same table were calculated in the space of two minutes and thirty seconds; and as these contained eighty-two figures, the engine produced thirty-three figures every minute, or more than one figure in every two seconds. On another occasion, it produced forty-four figures per minute. This rate of computation could be main

press the influence of certain persons in obstructing the operation of the official organs of government. When Ferdinand VII, in 1814, returned to Spain, he was surrounded by flatterers, who prevailed upon him to violate his promise of giving the people a constitution. They were called camarilla, either from the room where they remained in waiting, or in allusion to the council of Castile (camara de Castilla). Until the revolution of 1820 (see Spain), this camarilla consisted mostly of men without talent, but passionately opposed to every thing new; but when the king recovered his power, in 1823, they became more influential, and have since repeatedly interfered with the ministers. The thing itself is old enough: priests, favorites and women have often formed camarillas in monarchies and other governments. The word was much used in France during the reign of Charles X, as its Spanish origin suggests the influ

* A popular account of this engine will be found in Mr. Babbage's interesting volume On the Economy of Man factures.