the W. side of the valley is brought down below the second bed on the E., and the upper bed of toadstone on the one side is nearly on the same level with the second bed on the other. The fault is said to extend N. as far as Buxton, where it takes a N.W. direction to North Bradwell, and terminates at Litton near Tideswell; but both the direction and extent of this fault have been much disputed. It is in the course of this fault that the thermal springs of Buxton and Matlock are found. That of Buxton possesses the higher temperature, namely, 82° Fahr., which never varies at any hour of the day or season of the year. This water has been long celebrated for its medicinal virtues. It is more remarkable for the nature of its gaseous impregnations than for the quantity or nature of its saline ingredients. "The following analysis gives the amount and nature of the solid ingredients in one imperial gallon of the water, at 60° :—

On examining the water, there were found present carbonic acid and nitrogen, in addition to the solid ingredients. One gallon of the water was found to contain altogether 13.164 grains of carbonic acid; but of this quantity, 5.762 grains were due to the carbonates of lime and magnesia, and therefore only 7.402 grains could be considered free. The carbonates of lime and magnesia are present as bicarbonates, or as carbonates dissolved in carbonic acid, and 5'762 grains of carbonic acid would require to be added for this purpose. Hence, of the 7·402 grains, or 15-66 cubic inches, of gaseous carbonic acid in the water, only 1640 grain, or 3.47 cubic inches, can be considered free and uncombined. The nitrogen in the water could only be present in solution, and not in combination. The gas therefore consists entirely of carbonic acid and nitrogen, with a trace of oxygen accidentally present. It is assumed that at the moment of issue, the water is charged with 20'6 inches of nitrogen, and 15-66 inches of carbonic acid.” (Dr. Lyon Playfair, in Dr. Wm. Henry Robertson's 'Handbook to the Peak of Derbyshire,' London, 1854, Bradbury & Evans.)

Owing to the quantity of calcareous matter, the water is hard. It sparkles a little when first received at the fount. It is exceedingly clear, and does not become turbid by long exposure to the air. Over the bath a stratum of vapour hovers, which is more or less dense according to the state of the weather and the degree of attention paid to the ventilation of the apartment. The chalybeate spring contains about half a grain of carbonate of iron in each gallon, and is a soft

water.

The waters issuing from the warm spring are employed both internally and externally. A course of the water internally is generally taken at the same time as the baths are used; but in some habits of body the one mode only is admissible. Persons of the sanguineous temperament, especially if plethoric, can rarely take the waters internally, without at least previously undergoing some preparatory treatment, either venesection, cupping, or the use of purgative medicines. During all acute inflammatory diseases they must be avoided; and though very beneficial to persons subject to gout and rheumatism, the waters must not be employed either when an attack of the disease is approaching, or while much pain of the joints remains when the disease is receding. Persons in whom the digestive organs are feeble, either naturally or from the effects of what is termed good living, derive, in general, much benefit from the internal use of these waters. In most cases they should be taken early in the morning, after the bath, if these two modes be employed simultaneously. The quantity to be used should not at first exceed half a pint, taken in two equal portions, a quarter of an hour (during which the invalid will walk along the terrace when practicable) being allowed to intervene between the two glasses. About noon the same quantity should be again taken, observing similar rules. Some patients are however obliged to restrict themselves to its use during the forenoon, omitting the morning dose. No one should exceed a pint and a half in the course of each day.

The chalybeate water is sometimes used at the same time, and it is said that a mixture of the two forms a purgative draught. Upon the propriety of using the chalybeate at any period during his stay, the invalid must consult his medical adviser on the spot. It ought never to be used as a common drink, more particularly by persons of a plethoric habit of body.

The warm baths may be employed even by the most delicate persons, provided bathing in any form be proper. At first the stay in the bath should not exceed one minute, as the plunge is the most beneficial part of the process. The time may be gradually extended, but should never exceed fifteen minutes. Where a general bath cannot be borne by gouty or rheumatic patients, pumping the water upon the affected joints is frequently highly efficacious in reducing the swelling and

restoring flexibility. During the use of the baths no mercurial medicines of any kind should be taken, unless under the direction of a competent medical adviser on the spot. (Farey's Derbyshire; Gairdner on Mineral Springs; Denman, Saunders, Scudamore.)

BYLAW. Bylaws are the private regulations of a society or corporation, agreed upon by the major part of its members, for purposes of self-government, or for more conveniently carrying into effect the object of its institution.

It is not every voluntary association to which the law of England gives the power of binding dissentient members by the enactments of the majority. Immemorial custom or prescription, or legal incorporation by the crown, or by or under the provisions of a statute, is necessary to confer this power of local or private legislation; and even in those cases the Courts of law exercise the right of discussing the validity or policy of the bylaw, and of establishing its legality or declaring it to be void. In order to stand this test it must be reason. able and agreeable to the general policy of the law of England, and must not attempt to bind strangers unconnected with the society, or to impose a pecuniary charge without a fair equivalent, or to create a monopoly, or to subject the freedom of trade to undue restraint. The general object of a bylaw is thus rather to regulate existing rights than to introduce new ones or to extinguish or restrain the old. And where authority to make such regulations is conferred by charter or statute, the powers to do so must be strictly followed in making it, or the bylaw itself will be void.

The power of making bylaws is not absolutely confined to corporate bodies. It is in some instances lawfully exercised by a class of persons having no strict corporate character. Thus the tenants of a manor, the jury of a court-leet, the inns of court, the inhabitants of a town, or other district, sometimes enjoy a limited legislative power of this kind, by special custom or common usage. But in general the power is exercised only by incorporated bodies, and in such bodies the power is inherent of common right without any specific provision for that purpose in the charter of their incorporation. The expediency of this power is so obvious that we cannot be surprised at meeting with proofs of its existence in all countries and at a very early date. The Roman code recognised a right among the confraternity of its corporations to bind one another by similar engagements, as long as they were not at variance with the public law ('Dig.,' lib. xlvii. tit. 22), and professes to borrow this provision from the still more ancient code of Solon.

Our own term bylaw is of Saxon origin, and is formed by prefixing to the word law another word by or bye, which means house or town. Hence its primary import is town-law, and in this form and with this meaning it is said to be found among the ancient Goths, the Swedes, the Danes, and other nations of Teutonic descent. (Cowel, voc. Bilaws; Spelman on Feuds,' chap. ii., and the Glossaries under the head 'Bilago,' or 'Bellago.')

The birlaws and birlaw courts of Scotland, mentioned by some of the jurists of that country, are said to present some analogies to our bylaws, and may perhaps be referred to the same origin.

The statutes regulating municipal corporations give to the town councils a power of making bylaws for the good rule and government of the boroughs, and for the suppression of various nuisances; and of enforcing the observance of them by fines limited to 5. The local boards of health, the trustees of turnpike-roads in public matters, railway, canal, and dock companies within their own limits, have also limited powers of making bylaws enforceable by penalties. Some jointstock companies possess analogous authority for the proper carrying on their own business, and the regulation of their own affairs.

BYSSUS (Búoros). It has been a subject of some dispute whether the byssus of the ancients was cotton or linen: but recent investiga tions have determined that it is linen, and not cotton; at least so far as the term has been applied by Greek and Roman writers to mummy. cloth. Herodotus states, that the Egyptians wrapped their dead in the cloth of the byssus; and it has been shown by microscopic observa tions, that every specimen of mummy-cloth yet examined is made of linen fibre. The name byssus came probably from the Phoenicians, and may be derived from butz. (Buxtorf's 'Lexicon.') It is possible that writers later than the time of Herodotus may sometimes have applied the term indifferently either to cotton or linen cloth. Cotton was known in the time of Herodotus (B.c. 484-408), who calls it tree-wool (eipiováπov àñò ¿úλov): but there is no evidence to prove that it was then cultivated in Egypt, or in any other country except India; or that it was in common use in Egypt. His remarks, so far as they go, seem to imply that the commodity was a rarity. (Library of Entertaining Knowledge;' Egyptian Antiquities,' cap. v., vol. ii., part. i.)

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE is that style of ecclesiastical architecture which originated in Byzantium (Constantinople), and wa employed throughout the middle ages by the architects of the Greek church. Before the separation of the Eastern from the Western empire, architecture had fallen into a very debased condition. But in Roman architecture, even in its lowest state of declension, there existed the germs of new and noble forms. As was said under ARCHITECTURE, all true architecture has been the result of a modification or adaptation of some previous system to present circumstances and requirements. When, therefore, the growth of the Christian Church called for build.

ings adapted to its ritual, and corresponding to the dignity and wealth of the worshippers, the early ecclesiastical architects turned to the architecture of Rome, the only architecture with which they were acquainted, and found the guidance they sought. Their earlier works were of necessity to a great extent imitative; but as they acquired mastery over their art, and came to understand more exactly what was required, they applied their examples with more and more freedom, until they had, probably almost unconsciously, invented or rather developed a new style of architecture. In the Western empire, Roman architecture became in the hands of the ecclesiastical architects what is now known as the Romanesque. This, as it spread through Italy, Germany, France, and England, was variously modified into what we are sometimes apt to speak of as distinct styles under the names of the Lombardic, Norman, &c.; its ultimate development being into the Gothic. In the Eastern empire, on the other hand, Roman architecture became what we have now to notice as the Byzantine type, which in its turn influenced, more or less, all subsequent Oriental architecture, as well as that of the Slavonic races, and, by way of Venice and Marseille, extended its branches into Italy, the South of France, and even Germany.

The origin of Byzantine architecture dates from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine in A.D. 328. Nothing was omitted which the imperial power as well as the imperial wealth could accomplish, in order to impart magnificence to the city which was not only to serve as the metropolis of the East, but to bear the emperor's own name, and to convey to posterity a due impression of his genius and his power. The ablest architects and the most skilful artificers were summoned from the capital of the West to raise the capital of the East; and the cities of Greece and Asia were despoiled of their most valuable ornaments to contribute to its splendour. Gibbon has collected from a wide range of authorities a striking account of the enthusiasm and the rapacity of the emperor, and the splendour of the new city. (Decline and Fall,' chap. xvii.) It is not necessary to follow him in the enumeration of the public halls, theatres, baths, porticoes, aqueducts, palaces, temples, and churches which were erected. Probably constructed hastily, and with a view to gorgeousness of effect, they possessed little originality of character, or even correctness of imitation. We are told, indeed, that "the impatience of Constantine soon discovered that, in the decline of the arts, the skill as well as number of his architects bore a very unequal proportion to the greatness of his designs." And that in consequence, "the magistrates of the most distant provinces were directed to institute schools, to appoint professors, and by the hopes of rewards and privileges, to engage in the study and practice of architecture a sufficient number of ingenious youths, who had received a liberal education." (Gibbon.) In this step we perhaps may discover the true foundation of the new style. Young men thus impressed, as it were, from all parts, and trained with a view to meet an urgent requirement, would be far more likely to regard their art with a practical eye, to consider how they could best adapt the edifices they had to construct, so as to fulfil the purposes for which they were to be erected, and employ the materials at hand, rather than to encumber their minds with questions of precedence and academic propriety. And hence, in the churches the character and requirements of the ritual, and the arrangements called for by climate and the habits of the worshippers, would be studiously considered; and thus a style would be gradually formed like that actually found to exist-traceable back to the debased Roman of the 3rd century, but impregnated with a decided Orientalism of thought and well adapted, as it is generally admitted to be, to the locality in which it originated, and to the service of the Greek Church.

Of this First Period of Byzantine architecture which is considered to extend over a couple of centuries, from about 330 to 500, there are, however, few, if any, examples remaining which enable us to trace the actual progress of the style. The church of St. Johannes, constructed in the middle of the 5th century, is perhaps the oldest remaining in Constantinople. It shows that the Roman influence was still dominant. It is basilican in form [BASILICA], unlike the true Byzantine church, which always is, or approximates to, that of the Greek cross. The columns are imitations of a classic type, the order being Corinthian. Ample illustrations of this church will be found in the magnificent work of Herr Salzenberg, cited below. Other examples of this period are the church of St. John at Salonica, that of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, &c. As far as present investigations have shown, it may however be said that during this, its First Period, Byzantine architecture, with some local peculiarities, is essentially the same as the contemporary Romanesque.

The Second Period is, however, that of Byzantine architecture proper. It dates from the time of Justinian, who may indeed be regarded as its founder. The grand characteristic of the true Byzantine style is its use of domes and cupolas. A Byzantine or Greek church, in plan a Greek cross, consists of a great central square covered by a dome, other parts being covered by semi-domes or cupolas; west of the dome is a spacious extension called the narthex, while the east end terminates in a triple apsis. The interior consists of five divisions: 1, the narthex (western porch or vestibule), which is set apart for catechumens-the ground-floor being devoted to males, the gallery to females; 2, the nave, separated from the narthex by a screen, and from (3) the choir, usually by a low wooden barrier; 4, the bema, or

ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. II.

sanctuary; and 5, the apsis (usually tripartite), which forms the holiest place, and is shut off from the bema by a wooden screen which reaches to the roof or ceiling: this screen is called the Iconastasis (EikóvaoTaois) from the sacred pictures which are on its panels. Three doors in this screen lead from the bema to the apsis.

Externally Byzantine churches of this period exhibit little splendour. Columns are beginning to be a subservient and merely decorative feature. The capitals are little more than square blocks, tapering downwards, the ornament being either basket-work or foliage, and like the ornament generally in very low relief-the ground of the ornament being sunk below the general surface: sometimes disconnected volutes occur in their proper places, but occasionally at the bottom of the capitals. The arches are semi-circular. The domes and semi-domes, or cupolas, rise from nearly flat roofs. The great pillars which bear the central dome, are square; and pendentives [DOME], first adopted in the church of Sta. Sophia, are employed with great skill. The domes are for the most part pierced at their bases with numerous windows; the great dome of Sta. Sophia has 40. Coloured marbles are used for the shafts and other internal features, and rich mosaics are freely employed: the architects evidently trusting largely to polychromatic decoration for their general effect.

The most important example of this period, the typical example indeed of pure Byzantine architecture, is the church of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople (now, as is well-known, a Mohammedan mosque, the Aya Sofia), built in 532, by the emperor Justinian. Gibbon's account of its erection and of the building itself is so admirable that, though the passage be long, it will be more satisfactory to quote it than to give a dry technical description. He says:—

....

The dome

"The principal church, which was dedicated by the founder of Constantinople to Saint Sophia, or the Eternal Wisdom, had been twice destroyed by fire; after the exile of John Chrysostom, and during the nika of the blue and green factions. (January, 532.). .. But at the end of forty days a new temple was strenuously undertaken by the piety of Justinian. Anthemius formed the design, and his genius directed the hands of ten thousand workmen, whose payment in pieces of fine silver was never delayed beyond the evening. The emperor himself, clad in a linen tunic, surveyed each day their rapid progress, and encouraged their diligence by his familiarity, his zeal, and his rewards. The new cathedral of St. Sophia was consecrated by the patriarch, five years eleven months and ten days from the first foundation; and in the midst of the solemn festival, Justinian exclaimed with devout vanity, 'Glory be to God, who hath thought me worthy to accomplish so great a work; I have vanquished thee, O Solomon !' But the pride of the Roman Solomon, before twenty years had elapsed, was humbled by an earthquake, which overthrew the eastern part of the dome. Its splendour was again restored by the perseverance of the same prince; and in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, Justinian celebrated the second dedication of a temple, which remains, after twelve centuries, a stately monument of his fame. of St. Sophia, illuminated by four-and-twenty [40] windows, is formed with so small a curve that the depth is equal only to one-sixth of its diameter; the measure of that diameter is 115 feet, and the lofty centre, where a cresent has supplanted the cross, rises to the perpendicular height of 180 feet above the pavement. The circle which encompasses the dome, lightly reposes on four strong arches, and their weight is firmly supported by four massy piles [piers], whose strength is assisted on the northern and southern sides by four columns of Egyptian granite. A Greek cross, inscribed in a quadrangle, represents the form of the edifice; the exact breadth is 243 feet, and 269 may be assigned for the extreme length from the sanctuary in the east to the nine western doors which open into the vestibule, and thence into the narthex, or exterior portico. Beyond the northern and southern piles, a balustrade, terminated on either side by the thrones of the emperor and the patriarch, divided the nave from the choir; and the space [bema] as far as the steps of the altar, was occupied by the clergy and singers. The altar itself, a name which insensibly became familiar to Christian ears, was placed in the eastern recess [the apsis] artificially built in the form of a demicylinder; and this sanctuary communicated by several doors with the sacristy, the vestry, the baptistery, and the contiguous buildings, subservient either to the pomp of worship or the private use of the ecclesiastical ministers. The memory of past calamities inspired Justinian with a wise resolution, that no wood, except for the doors, should be admitted into the new edifice; and the choice of the materials was applied to the strength, the lightness, or the splendour of the respective parts. The solid piles [piers] which sustained the cupola were composed of huge blocks of freestone, hewn into squares and triangles, fortified by circles of iron, and firmly cemented by the infusion of lead and quicklime; but the weight of the cupola was diminished by the levity of its substance, which consists either of pumice-stone that floats in the water, or of bricks from the Isle of Rhodes five times less ponderous than the ordinary sort. The whole frame of the edifice was constructed of brick; but those base materials were concealed by a crust of marble; and the inside of St. Sophia, the cupola, the two larger and the six smaller semi-domes, the walls, the hundred columns, and the pavement delight even the eyes of barbarians with a rich and variegated picture. A poet, who beheld the primitive lustre of St. Sophia, enumerates the colours, the shades, and the spots of ten or

I I

twelve marbles, jaspers, and porphyries, which nature had profusely diversified, and which were blended and contrasted, as it were, by a skilful painter. The triumph of Christ was adorned with the last spoils of paganism; but the greater part of these costly stones was extracted from the quarries of Asia Minor, the isles and continent of Greece, Egypt, Africa, and Gaul. Eight columns of porphyry, which Aurelian had placed in the temple of the Sun, were offered by the piety of a Roman matron; eight others of green marble were presented by the ambitious zeal of the magistrates of Ephesus: both are admirable by their size and beauty, but every order of architecture disclaims their fantastic capitals. A variety of ornaments and figures was curiously expressed in Mosaic; and the images of Christ, of the Virgin, of saints, and of angels, which have been defaced by Turkish fanaticism, were dangerously exposed to the superstition of the Greeks. According to the sanctity of each object, the precious metals were distributed in thin leaves or in solid masses. The balustrade of the choir, the capitals of the pillars, the ornaments of the doors and galleries, were of gilt bronze; the spectator was dazzled by the glittering aspect of the cupola; the sanctuary contained 40,000 pound weight of silver; and the holy vases and vestments of the altar were of the purest gold, enriched with inestimable gems. Before the structure of the church had risen two cubits above the ground, 45,200 pounds were already consumed, and the whole expense amounted to 320,000 pounds: each reader, according to the measure of his belief, may estimate their value either in gold or silver, but the sum of one million pounds sterling is the result of the lowest computation." (Decline and Fall,' ch. xi.) More strictly architectural descriptions of this remarkable building, in its present as well as in its ancient state, will be found in the works referred to below, especially those of Fossati and Salzenberg: the former had the rare advantage of studying it quite unrestrained, he having been employed by the Sultan (or rather the minister Reschid Pacha) to repair and in part restore the building. Salzenberg's work is one of the most beautiful architectural monographs yet published. As will have been noticed, Gibbon, with all his warmth of description, I speaks disparagingly of Sta. Sophia as a work of art. Of late years a different opinion has been gaining ground; M. Fossati, who has spent so much time in its study, may easily be regarded as enthusiastic when he expatiates on the "majesty of the ensemble and the perfection of the details" of "this grand architectural master-piece," and asserts that he "knows not any other monument in the world the proportions of which are so vast and so majestic;" but it is otherwise when we find the interior of Sta. Sophia held forth by a high authority in our own country as the finest domical interior of ancient or modern times, both for appropriateness and beauty; while, it is added, " if we regard it with a view to the purposes of Protestant worship, it affords an infinitely better model for imitation than anything our own medieval architects ever produced." (Fergusson, Handbook of Arch.,' ii. 951.) Without going as far as this, there can be no doubt that a careful study of Byzantine interiors, with those of our own Wren, would have been far more beneficial to Protestant church architecture than the unreasoning imitation of Gothic forms which has so generally prevailed of late years, even whilst retaining Gothic as the basis of our ecclesiastical style.

The church of SS. Sergios and Bacchos, or as it is commonly called the lesser Sta. Sophia, is another very admirable, but smaller and less gorgeous, example of this period yet remaining at Constantinople; its central dome is 47 feet in diameter. St. Irene (now used as a museum for antique arms) is still smaller, but has some interesting features. Salzenberg gives illustrations of both these churches.

The Third Period extends from about 800 to 1200, when Byzantine architecture proper may be considered to have expired: in the period between the taking of Constantinople by the Venetians (1204) and its final conquest by the Turks (1453), such art as existed having become corrupted by the admixture of various foreign and incongruous elements.

In this Third Period, while the interiors are still adorned in as costly and splendid a manner as possible, more ornament is expended upon the exterior of the building than in the preceding, and more Orientalism

of character is imparted to the general design. The domes and semidomes are much smaller, and are raised on cylinders which reach to the height of the windows, so that the curved part is less than a hemisphere. Coloured shafts and flat surface decorations are much employed on the outside of the buildings. All the churches of this period in Constantinople are much inferior in size, as well as in richness, to Sta. Sophia. The finest remaining is that of Sta. Theotokos (9th century), which is, however, only 45 feet by 37 in the interior (exclusive of the narthex), with a central dome only 14 feet in diameter, but having three other domes over the narthex of scarcely inferior dimensions. The church of S. Pantokrator, founded in the beginning of the 12th century, is a kind of triple church, the central one having, as is believed, been intended as the sepulchre of the founder.

But the noblest example of the Byzantine architecture of this period is the church of St. Mark at Venice, which, begun in 977, was not finally completed till the latter part of the 12th century. Venice at this time belonged rather to the Eastern than to the Western empire, and the architects of the new church were brought from Greece, as were later the workers in mosaic; but whether the design was from Constantinople or Alexandria, is by no means certain. The plan of the church is a Greek cross, which is crowned with a central and four other domes, of equal diameters. The interior is 205 feet long; the transepts are 164 feet; but the external dimensions are 264 feet by 215. It is built of brick, but veneered on the exterior with marble. Much has been added to the church since its erection, and many of the original features have been concealed by subsequent alterations. Much of the ornamentation of the western front, and the peculiar cupola-like terminations which now surmount the domes, are of considerably later date, and belong to quite a different architectural style. Still the work retains the true Byzantine character, especially in the interior, which is unique in the "truly Byzantine profusion of gold mosaics which cover every part of the walls above the height of the capitals of the columns, and are spread over every part of the vaults and domes; being, in fact, the real and essential decoration of the church, to which the architecture is entirely subordinate. Externally, its great beauty consists in the profusion of marble columns, which surround and fill all the front and lateral porches. Like those in the interior, they have no constructive office to fulfil, but they are in themselves rich and beautiful, and are most picturesquely disposed." (Fergusson.)

The church of St. Antony at Padua bears a considerable resemblance to St. Mark's, but has a central dome, and five other domes over the nave, transepts, and choir, and two slender towers; it is, however, not so purely Byzantine in character, and much less graceful in form. A much closer imitation, though wanting the splendour of St. Mark's, is the church of St. Front at Périgueux, which M. de Verneilh assigns to the beginning of the 11th century. Another very important church of this period, usually termed Byzantine, is the cathedral of Pisa, which, with its connected baptistery, campanile, and campo santo, forms one of the most striking architectural groups in Europe. But though it has much that is Byzantine in character, it has so much that is Romanesque, that it cannot perhaps be fairly classed as Byzantine. Its architect was, however, a Greek, Buschetto of Dulichio, who erected it in the beginning of the 11th century.

For other true Byzantine churches in Greece, Asia Minor, Italy, France, &c., and for fuller particulars respecting the style itself, we must refer the reader to the works cited below, only remarking that, as in the instance of Pisa, it is now generally felt that some of the authors who have specially written on the subject have been led by their enthusiasm to extend Byzantine influence much farther than a cooler and more searching investigation warrants.

(A. Couchaud, Choix d'Eglises Byzantines en Grèce, fol. Paris, 1842; G. Fossati, Aya Sofia Constantinople, as recently restored by order of H. M. the Sultan Abdul Medjid, fol. London, 1852; W. Salzenberg, Alt-Christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinopel, fol. Berlin, 1854; Neale, History of the Holy Eastern Church, London, 1850; F. de Verneilh, L'Architecture Byzantine en France, Paris, 1851; De Caumont, Cours, vol. iv.; Hope, Hist. of Architecture; Fergusson, Handbook of Architecture; &c.)

in flower at the same time in any garden or field, when we wish to keep the sort unadulterated; particularly if some sorts have expanded leaves, and others close heads. It is thus only that the excellent small miniature cabbage which grows on the stem of the Brussels' sprout, can be kept in perfection. The different sorts of cabbages most prized for the garden are chiefly divided into the close-hearting and the spreading. Of the first, the York and the Savoys are the most common; of the latter, the cole-worts and Scotch kale.

In order to have a regular succession of cabbages the seed should be sown at different times, from the beginning of spring to the autumn. The early sown will run to seed the same year; the later sown will increase more, produce larger and firmer heads, and will not go to seed till the next season. Some sorts, it is said, will continue to produce leaves for several years, if they are regularly taken off, and if the seedstem is prevented from shooting by cutting it down as soon as it begins to appear. Thus a perennial cabbage-tree is produced, which yields abundance of food for sheep and cattle.

Cabbage plants are generally raised first in a seed-bed; when they are intended for early produce they are sown before winter, and protected by shelter or under glass frames. In this manner strong plants may be had early in spring, which planted out in April will produce fine cabbages by July or August. Those which are raised on a large scale are generally sown in March, and planted where they are to remain in June or July. When they have been pricked out from the seed-bed very young, and allowed to get to a good size in a piece of ground prepared for the purpose before being finally transplanted in the field, the success is more certain, and it will well repay the additional trouble. These come to perfection in autumn, and may be taken off the ground as they are wanted. Some kinds are so hardy that they will bear the severest frosts, and remain covered with snow for a considerable time without damage. Such are the green curlyleaved cabbages, or Scotch kale, which form no close head, but consist of spreading leaves. The great portion of nutritive matter in the leaves and stems of cabbages has made them an important object of cultivation wherever much cattle is kept, and where the land is favourable to their growth.

The cultivation of cabbages is the same in the field as in the garden, except that on a large scale less attention is paid to each plant, and the spade is superseded by the plough, and other instruments. A good and rather stiff loam is best adapted to cabbages. They require a considerable portion of manure if the land is not naturally rich, or if they are cultivated as a part of a regular rotation. There is no vegetable which produces so large a portion of food for cattle on the same space as the cabbage, provided the soil suits its growth. Though it impoverishes the ground, this should not prevent its being extensively cultivated, provided the nourishment it produces compensates for the additional manure required. The great advantage in the cultivation of the cabbage is, that a great portion of its substance is restored to the ground in all well-regulated farming establishments, in the shape of the dung and urine of the cattle fed upon them. It is asserted by experienced agriculturists that in this respect it is superior to the common turnip. The cultivation of the cabbage on a large scale is by no means so general on the soils well adapted to them as might be wished. This is probably owing to the trouble of transplanting, and the occasional failure of the plants in very dry weather. But the trouble and expense may be greatly diminished by attention and method. The plants may be raised in such abundance, by having a regular garden for the purpose, that they may be transplanted at various times, and the plants placed so thick as to allow for failures, whilst those which are superfluous may be hoed out. The cause of failure is generally in the careless manner of planting. Holes are usually made in the ground with some blunt instrument, the plants are put in without its being noticed whether the roots are doubled up or straight, whether the earth is pressed close to the roots, or vacancies are left between them and the soil, in which case they cannot take root properly.

If seed be sown in the garden in March, the plants will be ready to be dibbled in the field in May and June, and fit for consumption in autumn. It is well to prick out the young plants in lines before finally transplanting them in the field. In this last process the plough may be used. The ground having been well prepared, and being in good heart and tilth, a deep and narrow furrow should be opened. The plants having been carefully taken up without breaking the fibres of the root, the tops should be cut off to about six inches from the the crown, women and children should then go along the furrow with baskets in which the plants are carefully laid, and place them, at the distance of eighteen inches or two feet from each other, against the earth which has been just turned over by the plough, so that the bottom of the roots shall lie along the newly made ridge, and the crown of the plant be on a level with the surface of the ground; a slight push will make it adhere to the fresh soil. If some rich mould is mixed with drainings of the dung-hill or ditch water to the consistency of soft mud, and the root of each plant is dipped in a pail of this mixture immediately before planting, the plants will seldom fail. The plough in returning covers all these roots with the earth of the next furrow; and a man follows and presses his foot obliquely against the furrow slice at the place where the head of the plant appears. The plough then takes two shallower and broader furrows, or leaves a

space of two feet between the last-made furrow, and forms another in which plants are again placed and covered up as before. The rows will thus be three feet wide. If the cabbages are of a large sort every alternate plant may afterwards be cut out, either as soon as they are fairly rooted, or when they have acquired a moderate size; in which case they will afford excellent food for cows and pigs, although not sufficient to stall cattle upon. The repeated use of the plough and horse-hoe between the rows is necessary for the growth of the cabbages, as well as highly useful to clean the land. By this mode of cultivation much labour is saved, the risk of the failure of the plants is greatly diminished, and if the ground has been well prepared and sufficiently manured, an astonishing weight of solid food for cattle is obtained. The best sort to plant in the field is the large drum-head cabbage. Should the ground be of great fertility, and at the same time compact, the large Strasburg cabbage, which grows to the weight of 60 lbs. and even 80 lbs., will produce an enormous weight of food. This cabbage is common in Germany.

When given to cattle or sheep, cabbages should be sliced in the same manner as turnips or beet-root. When milch cows are fed with them, all the decayed leaves should be carefully taken off and given to store cattle or pigs; for these are the chief cause of the bad taste which the milk and butter acquire from this food. [BUTTER.] For bullocks cabbages and oil-cake are excellent food, and increase their flesh rapidly. For sheep they should be sliced and given to them in troughs in the field where the cabbages grow, or on grass-land which requires to be manured. In England the sorts which have a close head are preferred; but where labour is abundant and forage scarce, as in France, the branching sorts are thought more profitable, because the leaves may be taken off repeatedly and will grow again. The thousand-headed cabbage, and the large cabbage of Poitou, as well as the tall cabbage, called chou cavalier, which grows with a stem six feet high, and gives large broad leaves without any close head, are greatly preferred in France to the sorts which bear close heads.

Cabbages are subject to a peculiar disease when repeatedly planted in the same ground: the bottom of the stem enlarges, and the plant becomes sickly. This disease is called clubbing, and is occasioned by an insect, which deposits its eggs in the substance of the stem where it joins the root: the organisation of the plant is deranged, and the cabbages never come to perfection. The only remedy for this disease is to change the cultivation, and for a time to plant no cabbages on the ground which produces clubbed plants, but to trench it up well, and expose it to the winter's frost in ridges: quick-lime should be put on it, but no manure; and other vegetables of a different class should be sown for two or three years. After this it may be considered as purified, and cabbages may safely be planted there again. In the fields, where cabbages do not return so frequently on the same ground, this disease is seldom found. The depredations of caterpillars and slugs are sometimes very great; the only means of prevention is to pick them off as soon as they appear: ducks and fowls in this case are excellent helps, the former especially, for clearing the ground of slugs.

In Germany there is an immense consumption of the large white cabbage in the form of the national mess, called saur kraut. This is prepared in the following manner: The cabbages are sliced thin by hand, or by a machine like a turnip-slicer, of the same kind as that by which French beans are sliced in Holland. [BEAN.] The bottom of a cask, of which the head has been taken out, is covered with salt, and a layer of thin-sliced cabbage six inches thick is laid over it; on this a quantity of salt is spread, and another layer of cabbage mixed with some juniper-berries and whole pepper; and thus salt and cabbage alternately until the cask is filled. A round board is then put into the cask so as nearly to fit it, and on this a heavy weight of stone or metal is laid. As the cabbage ferments and sinks, the cask is filled up with fresh salt and cabbage. After some time the expressed juice is poured off, some water with salt dissolved in it is poured over, and changed until it ceases to rise with a scum and fetid smell; the cabbage is then in a fit state to be kept. A cloth is laid over it, and over this the round board and weights. When any portion is taken out for use, a sufficient portion of brine is allowed to remain over the mass to exclude the air; and the cloth, board, and weights, are replaced as long as any cabbage remains. This saur kraut, when washed with soft water and stewed with bacon or salted meat, is a very wholesome dish, and much relished by those who have been early accustomed to it. In long voyages it has been found to be an admirable preservative against the sea-scurvy.

CA'BBALA. "The Jewish Cabbala," says Dr. Henry More, in the preface to his 'Conjectura Cabbalistica," is conceived to be a traditional doctrine or exposition of the Pentateuch, which Moses received from the mouth of God while he was on the mount with him. And this sense, or interpretation, of the law or Pentateuch, as it is a doctrine received by Moses first, and then from him by Joshua, and from Joshua by the seventy elders, and so on, was called Cabbala from?, kibbel, to receive. But, as it was delivered as well as received, it was called Masora, which signifies a Tradition; though this latter more properly respects that critical and grammatical skill of the learned among the Jews, and therefore was profitable for the explaining the literal sense, as well as that more mysterious meaning of the text where it was