Les Étangs (1876), Tristesses et Sourires (1883), and L'Enfant (1885). He died 22d October 1895. Drugget (Fr. droguet), a woven and felted coarse woollen fabric, usually with a printed pattern, chiefly used for covering carpets, and hence called in some parts of Great Britain crumb-cloth. It is generally too thin to take the place of a proper carpet, but it is sometimes so employed. The name is also given to a stout dress fabric made with a linen warp and a worsted weft. It is made into petticoats, workmen's aprons, &c. ; sometimes only the weft, but often both warp and weft, being dyed. Drugs. See ADULTERATION, CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS, PHARMACOPOEIA, PHARMACY, and PRESCRIPTION; also such articles as ARSENIC, MORPHINE, OPIUM.

Druidism is commonly spoken of as the religions system of the Gauls and Britons, or of the Celtic peoples. Sir John Rhys, however, held that the real religion of the Celts was an Aryan Polytheism like that of Italians and Greeks; and that Druidism, in so far as found amongst the Celts of Gaul or Britain, was by them derived probably from pre-Celtic and non-Aryan aborigines (Ivernians, Iberians, Euskarians or Basques, Neolithic men?), and was thus non-Aryan in origin. There is no reason, he says, for holding that Druidism was found amongst the Brythonic races proper, though it was in force amongst the Goidelic (Gaelic) peoples of the British Isles. Cæsar thus describes the character and functions of the Druids They attend to divine worship, perform public and private sacrifices, and expound matters of religion. A great number of youths are gathered round them for the sake of education, and they enjoy the highest honour in that nation; for nearly all public and private quarrels come under their jurisdiction; and when any crime has been committed, when a murder has been perpetrated, when a controversy arises about a legacy or about landmarks, they are the judges too. They fix rewards and punishments; and should any one, whether a private individual or a public man, disobey their decrees, then they exclude him from the sacrifices. This is with them the severest punishment. The persons who are thus laid under interdict are regarded as impious and wicked people; everybody recoils from them, and shuns their society and conversation, lest he should be injured by associating with them. They cannot obtain legal redress when they ask for it, nor are they admitted to any honourable office. All these Druids have one chief, who enjoys the highest authority amongst them. When he dies, he is succeeded by the member of the order who is most prominent amongst the others, if there be any such single individual; if, however, there are several men equally distinguished, the successor is elected by the Druids. Sometimes they even go to war about this supremacy. At a certain time of the year, the Druids assemble on the territory of the Carnutes, which is believed to be the centre of all Gaul, in a sacred place. To that spot are gathered from everywhere all persons that have quarrels, and they abide by their judgments and decrees.

It is believed that this institution was founded in Britannia, and thence transplanted into Gaul. Even nowadays, those who wish to become more intimately acquainted with the institution generally go to Britannia for instruction's sake.

The Druids take no part in warfare; nor do they pay taxes like the rest of the people; they are exempt from military service, and from all public burdens. Attracted by such rewards, many come to be instructed by their own choice, while others are sent by their parents. They are reported to learn in the school a great number of verses, so that

some remain there twenty years. They think it an unhallowed thing to commit their lore to writing, though in the other public and private affairs of lifethey frequently make use of the Greek alphabet. Beyond all things, they are desirous to inspirea belief that men's souls do not perish, but transand they hold that people are thereby most strongly migrate after death from one individual to another; urged to bravery, as the fear of death is thus destroyed. Besides, they hold a great many discourses about the stars and their motion, about the

size of the world and of various countries, about the nature of things, about the power and might of the immortal gods; and they instruct the youths in these subjects.'

It is easy to comprehend that this powerful priesthood did all it could to uphold the national cause against the Roman conquerors, and urged the people to rebellion; so much so, that the Emperor Claudius found it necessary to interdict formally the practising of Druidical rites, which seem, however, to have continued down to the extinction of paganism. Besides being priests and teachers of religion, the Druids appear also to have been adepts in the magic arts, and were versed in the mysterious powers of animals and plants. The oak-tree was especially sacred among the Druids. In oakgroves they frequently performed their rites, and many have even derived their name from this custom. They also had a special reverence for the mistletoe, when growing on an oak. According to Pliny, a Druid, clothed in white, mounted the tree, and with a knife of gold, cut the mistletoe, which was received by another, standing on the ground, in his white robe. The same author gives a curious account of the serpent's egg,' worn as a distinguishing badge by the Druids. It was formed, he says, by the poisonous spittle of a great many serpents twined together. Gathered at moonlight, and afterwards worn in the bosom, it was a mighty talisman. All these particulars refer properly to the Druids of Gaul, but Cæsar's testimony leaves no doubt that the Druidism of Britain was essentially the same. According to Whitley Stokes, the Druids never were in Ireland a hierarchy or separate class, as they are said to have been in Britain; but merely a species of wizards, enchanters, or

sorcerers.

In all the countries anciently inhabited by Celts, there are found rude structures of stone, one of the most common forms of which is the so-called Dolmen (q.v.). The older archæologists-e.g. Stukeleyassumed that these were Druidical altars, but there is no proof that such was their destination or origin: similar structures are found in Scandinavia and other parts of the Continent. The same doubts prevail as to the larger monuments of this kind-the supposed Druidical temples of Carnac in Brittany, and of Stonehenge (q.v.; and see STANDING STONES). Speaking more generally, the historians and archeologists of the present day do not profess to know nearly so much about the Druids as did those who wrote concerning them in a previous generation. See Rhys, Celtic Heathendom (1888); D'Arbois de Jubainville, Les Druides (1906).

Drum (Ger. trommel; Fr. tambour, a modification of tabour; timbrel and tambourine are other forms of the word tabour or tambour), an instrument of percussion, in which a skin of parchment, stretched on a frame of wood or metal, is beaten with an instrument called a drumstick. There are three varieties of the drum: the kettle-drum, the side-drum, and the bass-drum. The first is the only one which can really claim to be a musical instrument, playing a definite note in harmony with the music it accompanies. The kettle-drum (Fr. timbale, Ger. pauke, Ital. timpano) consists of a kettle, or shell, of brass or copper, generally

hemispherical, over the mouth of which the skin is stretched by means of an iron ring, which is also provided with screws and keys for tightening the skin to tune it to any note within its compass. Two (often three or more) are required in a full orchestra; the larger should have a compass from F to C, the smaller from Bb to F on the bass stave; and they require to be tuned to the proper notes, as indicated in the music. They are played upon with whalebone sticks, having at one end a wooden button covered with sponge or other soft material. The roll, a most effective part of its music, is performed with single alternate and very rapid strokes of the sticks, about one-fourth of the diameter from one side. The only military use made of the kettle-drum is in cavalry bands, which carry two, possibly because two are more easily balanced on a horse's shoulders than one, rather than from any 'musical reason.

The side-drum, or snare-drum, is more essentially a military instrument, though sometimes also used in orchestras. It consists of a brass or wood cylinder, with a skin head at each end. These are tightened by means of hoops over the heads, laced with an endless cord passing zigzag wise from head to head, and braced with leather braces, or more usually with rods and screws. Across the lower end several catgut cords, or snares, are tightly stretched in contact with the skin, causing a rattle when the other end is beaten. When anything is put between these snares and the skin to prevent the rattle, the drum is said to be muffled, and is so used at funerals. It is played upon on the centre of the upper end by means of two hard wood sticks with a knob at one end. The roll for the side-drum consists in striking two blows alternately with each stick. It is called daddy mammy, from the sound. The side-drum was formerly used as a signal instrument, and the drummer is still an army institution (see BAND); but the Bugle (q.v.) does the signalling, the drum only being used with the music in marching.

The

The bass-drum (Ital. gran tamburo or gran cassa, Fr. grosse caisse) is of similar construction, having (commonly) two heads. The stick has a soft round knob. The centre of the head is struck. side and bass drums being only used to mark the rhythm of the music, are not tuned to any particular note. The orchestral bass-drum is very often made much larger in diameter than the military instrument, and with a shorter cylinder.

A Drum-head Court-martial, so called because originally held round the big drum, is a hasty council or court-martial held in the field when it is necessary to punish an offender on the spot and without delay. By the Army Act of 1881 a Summary Court-martial was instituted to take its place in the British army.

The Tambourine (q.v.) is another species of drum. The ancient Romans used small hand-drums-some resembling tambourines and others kettle-drumsin their religious dances; and the Parthians are said to have used them in war to give signals. They are believed to have been first introduced to western Europe by the Crusaders.

Drum, a Celtic word meaning the back, and applied to a small hill or ridge of hills, enters into the composition of many place-names, especially in Ireland and Scotland, as Drumcondra, Drumglass, Drumsheugh.

Drumclog, a moorland tract in Lanarkshire, on the borders of Ayrshire, 6 miles SW. of Strathaven. Here, 2 miles E. of Loudon Hill, Claverhouse was defeated on 1st June 1679 in a skirmish with a party of 200 Covenanters, vividly described in Scott's Old Mortality. A monument marks the scene of the encounter.

Drum-major, the old title (till 1878) of the sergeant-drummer who commands the drummers, marches at the head of the battalion, and sets the pace. See BAND.

Drummond, HENRY, biologist and theologian, University of Edinburgh and the Theological was born at Stirling in 1851, and studied at the College of the Free Church; and in 1877 was appointed lecturer on Natural Science, and in 1884, professor of Natural Science at the Free Church College in Glasgow. He had travelled in the Rocky Mountains, in Central Africa, Japan, the New Hebrides, and Australia. In his book on Natural Law in the Spiritual World he sought by analogical with the doctrine of evolution. The book, pubarguments to reconcile evangelical Christianity and was followed in 1894 by The Ascent of Man, an lished in 1883, reached in ten years a 29th edition; attempt to christianise evolution by laying stress on altruistic elements in natural selection, which he called 'the struggle for the life of others. Other publications were a charming work on Tropical Africa (1888; 20th thousand 1890), followed by New Protectorate (1890), The Greatest Thing in the a series of small books, Travel Sketches in Our World, Pax Vobiscum, &c.; and he wrote CREATION for a former edition of this Encyclopædia. He died 11th March 1897. See Life by G. A. Smith (1899).

Drummond, THOMAS, R. E., born at Edinburgh in 1797, in 1820 joined the ordnance survey, whose and his adaptation of the lime-light (the so-called work was facilitated by his improved heliostat · Drummond Light'). He became head of the boundary commission under the Reform Bill; private secretary to Lord Althorp, Chancellor of Ireland in 1835-a post in which he at once gained the Exchequer, in 1833; and Under-secretary for the confidence and affection of the people. His memorable saying, Property has its duties as well as its rights,' dates from 1838. He died 15th April 1840, in Dublin, where, alone of English secretaries, he lies in a grave of his own choosing among the people he was sent to govern. See the Life by Barry O'Brien (1889).

Drummond, WILLIAM, OF HAWTHORNDEN, a poet of considerable celebrity, was descended from an ancient Scottish family, and was born at his father's seat at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh, 13th December 1585. He was educated at the High School of Edinburgh, and afterwards at the university of that city, where he graduated Master of Arts in 1605. He next studied law and general literature at Bourges and Paris, and on his father's death in 1610 retired to Hawthornden, which, according to the learned Ruddiman, was a sweet and solitary seat, and very fit and proper for the muses. He devoted his life to poetry and mechanical experi. ments. He was on the point of marrying Mary Cunningham of Barns, when she died in 1614 or 1615. He married Elizabeth Logan in 1632. He had to subscribe to the Covenant, but witnessed its triumph with a sinking of heart that the most sarcastic verses in manuscript could not relieve. He died 4th December 1649; his death, it is said, being hastened by his excessive grief for the fate of Charles I. Drummond enjoyed the friendship of many of his contemporaries, including Drayton, Montrose, and the great Ben Jonson, the last of whom paid him a memorable visit at Hawthornden in 1618-19. The two men were unlike in everything save that both were genuine poets, and Drummond's Notes of the greater man's conversation (printed in full, 1923) is one of the most interesting chapters of literary history. His principal works are Tears on the Death of Maliades-Prince Henry, son of James I.-(1613); Poems: Amorous, Funerall, Divine, Pastorall, in Sonnets, Songs, Sextains,

Madrigals (1616); Forth Feasting (1617); and Flowers of Sion (1623). His prose writings include a History of Scotland, known as the History of the Fice Jameses, as well as some political tracts. Drummond's verse abounds in the conceits, antitheses, and hyperboles of the period, and gives indication of a mind given to the luxury of melancholy. His sonnets are the best specimens of his muse. His mastery of different rhythms reveals his learning and the labour he gave to his verse. The Cypresse Grove, published with Flowers of Sion (re printed 1907), is a masterpiece of 17th century prose His poems were edited in 1832 (Maitland Club), in 1833 (by Peter Cunningham), in 1857 (by W. D. Turnbull), in 1894 (by Win. C. Ward), and in 1913 (by Professor Kastner). The rude macaronic, Polemo-Middinia, is often attributed to Drummond. See the learned and exhaustive Life by Professor Masson (1873).

Drummond Island, most westerly of the Manitoulin chain in Lake Huron, belonging to Michigan, measures 20 miles by 10.

Drunkenness. See INTOXICATION, ALCOHOLISM, DIPSOMANIA, INEBRIATES, and TEMPERANCE. Drupe, in Botany, a succulent fruit containing a single seed or kernel, usually inclosed in a hard 'stone, the endocarp. The succulent part is the mesocarp, the skin of the epicarp. Examples are familiar in the fruits generally known as stonefruits, the peach, plum, cherry, &c. The fruits of the genus Rubus (Raspberry, Bramble) are composed of many small aggregated drupes upon a common receptacle. See FRUIT.

Drury, DRU, a silversmith of London, was born 4th February 1725. He was devoted to the study of entomology and to collecting exotic insects, and published Illustrations of Natural History (3 vols. 1770-82, with upwards of 240 figures of exotic insects). His Illustrations of Exotic Entomology was edited in 1837 by J. O. Westwood, and appeared with nearly 700 figures by Moses Harris. Drury

died 15th December 1803.

down in 1806.

Drury-lane Theatre was first opened in 1663, by Killigrew, though earlier theatres had stood in Drury Lane. Killigrew's house was burned in 1672, and a new building, by Wren, was opened in 1674. In 1791 it was pulled down. The third theatre, completed in 1794, was burned The fourth was inaugurated in 1812 with a prologue by Lord Byron, the advertisement for which gave rise to the famous Rejected Addresses. Among proprietors and managers have been Cibber, Garrick, who opened the theatre in 1747 with Dr Johnson's prologue, Sheridan, and Macready; and most of the great English actors have trod the boards which, during and after the manage ment (1879-96) of Sir Augustus Harris, were largely given over to pantomimes and spectacular pieces.

Druses, a remarkable people of Syria, forming three groups-the largest in Jebel Druz or Haurán (q.v.), a mountain district S. of Damascus; the second in southern Lebanon (q.v.); and the third on the western slopes of Anti-Lebanon and about Hernon. Many of the second and third groups migrated to the Haurân, as being too much dominated by Christian authority in Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. A good many have emigrated to America. Conflicting statements as to their origin indicate probably a mixture of races. According to their own tradition, they were Arab tribes from Yemen who migrated to Mesopotamia, thence to the neigh: bourhood of Aleppo, where Darazi found them, and whence they came south. Another tradition traces their origin to the Cuthites (Karduchi or Kurds), with whom, after the second captivity of Israel, Esarhaddon re-peopled the wasted strongholds of Samaria. More than a thousand years later, the

Mardi, a warlike tribe of Persian extraction, were transplanted thither by Constantine IV., in 686 A.D., to the number of 12,000, to act as a bulwark against Mohammedan invasion. The Arabs also, in sweeping through the mountain-fastnesses, left a permanent impression there. Thus, according to this view, Cuthites, Mardi, and Arabs, or rather Mohammedans of various races, combined to form that strange being-the modern Druse. The nationality of these mountaineers having been consolidated, their peculiar and mysterious religion began gradually to be developed. Hakim Biamr Allah, or Biamrillah, one of the Fatimite khalifs of Egypt, and a Nero in cruelty, was the He affirmed that he was author of this system. the representative of God, and, having enlisted his confessor, Darazi, in his cause, he prepared to propound his doctrine. In the 407th year of the Hegira (1029 A.D.), the divine nature of Hakim, or rather the incarnation of the Spirit of God in This him, was publicly announced at Cairo. revelation, however, was unfavourably received by the mob. Hakim's confessor, Darazi, narrowly escaped the fate of a martyr to the impostures of his master. Retiring, however, he established himself on the western slopes of Hermon near Hasbeya, and there began to inculcate the principles of the new faith; and although he never acquired any mastery over the sympathies of the mountaineers, he at least in all probability left his name to them. Hamzé, a Persian mystic, and successively the disciple and vizier of Hakim, introduced into the newly promulgated religion all the elements of attraction and strength which it possesses; and him the Druses venerate as the actual founder of their faith.

The Druses form one of the very few sects among whom proselytism is discouraged. They are remarkable conservatists. For 800 years they have maintained a distinct religious and political independence and nationality. Into their faith the doctrines of the Pentateuch, the Christian gospel, the Koran, and the Sufi allegories are wonderfully interwoven. The following are their seven great principles: (1) Veracity (to each other only); (2) mutual protection and resistance; (3) renuncia tion of all other religions; (4) separation from all who are in error; (5) recognition of the unity of God; (6) resignation to his will; (7) obedience to the commands of God. They believe in they ascribe no attributes, before whom the tongue one God in whom there are no parts, to whom revealed himself ten times upon the earth under ceases to utter, the eyes to behold, but who has the form and name of mortal men. In Hakim, the tenth and last time; there have been sixtyso Hamzé taught, had God revealed himself for nine minor manifestations. They also believe that the number of existing souls never varies, and that all the souls in life now have lived, vested in some human form, from the beginning of the world, and will so continue to exist till the end of it; that when a man dies, his soul puts on a fresh humanity, which occupies a rank in moral dignity corresponding to the purity or impurity of the past life. When the soul has been purified from every stain, there will come a period of rest. Prayer is looked upon as an interference with the work of the Creator. The resurrection will be ushered in by war between the Mohammedans and Christians, and the Druses only wait for an Armageddon in which they believe they are destined to take a prominent part. As a religious body, the Druses are divided into two classes; the Akals, or those initiated into the Druse mysteries; and the Djahils, the uninitiated. The former do not adorn themselves with gold, or wear silk, or embroidered garments; they forbear using wine,

Dryden seems to have had some, but vain, hopes of patronage from his cousin Sir Gilbert Pickering, a favourite of Cromwell. It is thought that he began early to do work for the booksellers, especially Herringman, a then frequent employer of young authors; but again we have little or no positive information respecting him till December 1, 1663, when he married Lady Elizabeth Howard, eldest daughter of the Earl of Berkshire, and sister of two not unknown men of letters who were Dryden's friends. Much scandal has been talked about this marriage on absolutely no solid ground, but it seems probable that it was not wholly happy, and that Lady Elizabeth, whose intellect was certainly not strong, may have had a bad temper. Three sons, Charles, John, and Erasmus Henry, were the offspring, and from this time Dryden occasionally resided at his father-in-law's Wiltshire seat of Charlton. He had several London residences, the best known of which was in Gerrard Street, Soho, a house now marked with a tablet. Very shortly after the wedding, Pepys on the 3d of February 1664 met Dryden, the poet I knew at Cambridge,' at Will's Coffee-house, and this is the first of the personal notices (very few in number) that we have of the poet.

The dramatic work of which further notice will be taken shortly now occupied Dryden almost entirely for many years-for no less than fourteen he wrote next to nothing but drama. He was made poet-laureate and historiographer-royal in 1670, the emoluments of which places (£200 a year) were increased by a pension of £100 in 1679. Some literary disputes and a quarrel with the malevolent Rochester, which brought Dryden on the 8th December 1679 a cudgelling by masked bravoes, are almost the only events of importance in this long period. The disturbances in public opinion which followed the Popish Plot provoked the splendid series of satires beginning with Absalom and Achitophel, and brought an increasing storm of libels in prose and verse on Dryden's head from the other side. In 1683, as part compensation for great arrears in his salary, and perhaps also as reward for his political services, a collectorship of customs in the port of London was granted him, but the value of this place is not known. In the epidemic of conversion which followed the accession of James II., Dryden was one of the chief seceders from the Church of England, and his sincerity in this act has been violently impugned. Controversy on such a point being here impossible, it must be sufficient to say that his previous state of mind on the subject appears to have been exactly that half-scepticism, with a kind of yearning for authoritative certainty, which has constantly disposed men to Roman Catholicism; that he gained (as can be proved) not one penny by the change of faith; and that he adhered to it when others reverted,' and when his own constancy inflicted the heaviest loss upon him. At the Revolution he did not take the oaths, and thus lost all his places and pensions. To supply this loss, he then returned to playwriting, and to the less uncongenial, if not quite so profitable work of translation. During the last ten years of his life (which saw the production of his famous translation of Virgil, and of the collection of his most accomplished verse called the Fables) we have, thanks to the accidental preservation of letters, a few more personal details about Dryden than at other times. Almost immediately after the publication of the last-named volume (at the end of 1699), an attack of gout, from which disease he had always suffered much, set in, and resulting in mortification of the toe, carried him off on May-day 1700. He was splendidly buried in Westminster Abbey. All his sons died before their mother, who

lived till 1714, and was insane at the time of her death. The youngest, however, Erasmus Henry, had succeeded to the family honours and baronetcy, and to the estate of Canons Ashby, which, by a female descent, are still in the name.

Dryden's great literary work began early, though not plentifully or very promisingly, with some poems in the metaphysical' manner of Donne and Cleveland; but his stanzas on the death of Cromwell, though lacking ease and flow, have great merit, and the group of panegyrical poems, written after the Restoration, beginning with Astræa Redux and ending with Annus Mirabilis, exhibit wonderful command of a style of verse not hitherto attempted. Then, as has been said, Dryden turned all his energies for many years into dramatic work, which he confesses to have been distasteful to him, and which was done for profit simply. Between The Wild Gallant (1663) and Love Triumphant (1694) he produced a great number of plays, the best of which are the Conquest of Granada (1670), Marriage à la Mode (1672), Aurungzebe (1675), All for Love (1677), The Spanish Friar (1681), and Don Sebastian (1689). The comedies are disfigured by a double portion of the license in language and situation which was common at the time, and the earlier tragedies by their unnatural rhymed dialogue, and by the frantic rant of style which was fashionable; but they occasionally contain, especially in interspersed lyrics, and in a few set speeches, extremely fine poetry. It was Dryden's practice, too, to prefix or append to the published versions of these plays, essays which developed his astonishing talent for prose, which may be said to have produced English literary criticism, and which contain passages unsurpassed of their kind. It can hardly, however, be said that his full powers were shown till the appearance, in his fiftieth year, of Absalom and Achitophel. This, with his contribution to its second part, The Medal, Macflecknoe (a satire on the whig Shadwell), and with the didactic poems of Religio Laici (exhibiting the sentiments of a half-sceptical Anglican), and The Hind and the Panther, written after, and to justify his conversion, contain by far the most powerful work of the satiric and didactic kind in English. The rhymed heroic couplet is here adjusted to the purposes of invective, insinuation, and argument with unmatched dexterity, and is charged with an overwhelming force.

Besides these, Dryden exercised himself in various minor kinds, such, for instance, as the preparation of prologues and epilogues for other men's plays as well as his own, and in the composition of Pindaric odes, one of which, that on Mrs Anne Killigrew, shares with his own later Alexander's Feast the position of the best work of this particular kind. He also began the practice of translating the classics, which led finally to the great translation of Virgil already referred to, and to his scarcely less popular Juvenal; and this in its turn led him to what he also called translation' of authors other than the classics, such as Chaucer and Boccaccio. These later paraphrases formed the nucleus of the Fables, in which the magnificence, the variety, and the flexibility of his poetical style appear as clearly as its vigour and weight appear in the satires and didactic pieces. The dedication of the Fables in particular, addressed to the Duchess of Ormond, when the author was nearly seventy, has a stately beauty nowhere exceeded. His general poetical characteristics, as far as they can be summed up in a very brief space, may be said to be the faculty of clothing in splendid verse of a pattern quite unknown before him, and never in its own way equalled since, almost any subject that presented itself for treatment. Of inventive, or rather creative origin