written in company with Dekker, who probably supplied the pleasing lyrical passages. Two other plays by Dekker and Ford, The Fairy Knight and The Bristowe (Bristol) Merchant, were produced in 1624, but were not published. The Witch of Edmonton, produced circa 1621 and published in 1658, was written with Dekker and William Rowley. Ford's share was probably confined to the scenes which relate to Frank Thorney. On one occasion Ford collaborated with Webster; but the tragedy, A late Murder of the Son upon the Mother, licensed for the stage in September 1624, was not given to the press. To Webster's Duchess of Malfi (1623) Ford prefixed a copy of commend atory verses. Among the plays unfortunately destroyed by Bishop Warburton's cook were four pieces by Ford, a tragedy, and three comedies. The tragedy, Beauty in a Trance, was entered in the Stationers' Register in 1653, and the three comedies, The London Merchant, The Royal Combat, and An Ill Beginning has a Good End, were entered in 1660; but all four remained unpublished. After the publication (1639) of The Lady's Trial Ford passes from notice. There is a tradition that he secured a competence by his professional labours, and ended his days in Devonshire. It is certain that he was not dependent on the stage for his livelihood. In procuring practice he was doubtless aided by the influence of his maternal uncle, Lord Chief-justice Popham. Ford had little comic talent, but his place among the tragic poets is unassailable. There is often a want of spontaneity in his writings; he is too elaborate and too subtle; but his two great tragedies, 'Tis Pity and The Broken Heart, are not far inferior to Webster's masterpieces. William Gifford edited Ford's works in 1827, Hartley Coleridge in 1840; in 1869 Alexander Dyce revised Gifford. An edition in Bang's Materialien was begun in 1908. Ford, RICHARD, F.S.A., was born in 1796, graduated at Oxford in 1817, and was called to the bar, though he never practised. The years 1830-34 were spent in a series of long riding tours in Spain; and in 1845 appeared the first edition of his delightful Handbook for Travellers in Spain. His Gatherings from Spain (1846) is mainly made up of charming matter which want of space caused to be cut out of the second edition of the Handbook. For twenty years Ford was a contributor to the Quarterly and other reviews, and his papers on Spanish art especially are of great value. He died 1st Sept. 1858. See his Letters (ed. Prothero, 1905). Fordun, JOHN OF. This early Scottish chronicler was a secular priest, perhaps connected with the cathedral of Aberdeen. It has been inferred from his name that he was born at Fordun, in Kincardineshire. Having proposed to himself the compilation of a chronicle of Scotland, he is said to have travelled on foot through Britain and Ireland in search of materials. He lived to write only five books of his Scotichronicon, bringing the history down to the death of King David I. in 1153. He left collections extending to the year 1384, about which time he is supposed to have died. The work which John of Fordun had left unfinished was resumed in 1441 by Walter Bower, abbot of the monastery of Austin Canons Regular, at Inchcolm, in the Firth of Forth. Making use of his collections so far as they went, Bower enlarged the five books which Fordun had completed, and wrote eleven new books, bringing the Scotichronicon down to the year 1437; but many of his alterations corrupted Fordun's narrative. The work is the chief authority for the history of Scotland prior to the 15th century; its value being greatest during the 14th, when it is contemporary. Of the Scotichronicon there exist upwards of twenty MSS., the purest as regards Fordun's text being that preserved in the Wolfenbüttel library. Four printed editions have been published. The latest edition of Fordun's own work is that chiefly from the Wolfenbüttel MS. edited by W. F. Skene (2 vols. Edin. 1871-72); one of the volumes being an English translation of the Latin text. Forecasts. See METEOROLOGY. which a mortgagor failing to repay the money lent Foreclosure, in English law, the process by his right to redeem the estate. on the security of an estate is compelled to forfeit having mortgaged his estate is entitled to an Every person equity of redemption, which can only be cut off by a formal process. For this purpose the mortgagee files a bill of foreclosure, praying that an account may be taken of the principal and interest due under the mortgage, and that the mortgagor, on failing to pay, may forfeit his If on the day fixed for equity of redemption. payment the money be not forthcoming, the mortgagor will be declared to have forfeited his equity of redemption, and the mortgagee will be allowed to retain the estate. See MORTGAGE. Foreign Enlistment Act. In the law of England there was a statutory prohibition of enlistment in the service of a foreign prince from the times of James I.; but the statute commonly known as the Foreign Enlistment Act is that of 1870. It provides that if any British subject shall agree to enter the service of any foreign state at war with any friendly state, either as a soldier or a sailor, without the license of the sovereign, or an order in council or royal proclamation, or if any person within the British dominions induces any other person to enlist in the service of a foreign state, such person shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. The officers of the customs, on information on oath, may detain any vessel having persons on board destined for unlicensed foreign service. Masters of vessels knowingly having such persons on board are punishable by fine or imprisonment or both. Persons building any vessel for foreign service without license are guilty of a high misdemeanour, and the ship and stores are forfeited. Even to assist a foreign state at war with a friendly state by supplying warlike stores without license is a misdemeanour punishable with fine and imprisonment. These penalties are irrespective of any consequences that may follow to the individual for having committed a breach of international law. See MERCENARIES. Foreigner. See ALIEN. Foreign Law. The term foreign is applied by lawyers to places and matters outside the limits within which certain laws apply and courts have jurisdiction. Thus, to an English lawyer Scotland is a foreign country. Foreign law as such has, of course, no application to England; but the comity of nations requires that it should be recognised and acted upon in certain cases, as, for example, by the Extradition (q.v.) of offenders. The judgment of a foreign court, if in favour of the defendant, is an answer to an action brought on the same complaint in England; if in favour of the plaintiff, it is accepted as prima facie evi. dence that his claim is well founded, and he may obtain satisfaction by suing on the judgment in England. Foreign law is proved in an English court as a matter of fact by the evidence of experts, or, if necessary, by taking the opinion of a foreign court. Government is empowered to make treaties for facilitating mutual ascertainment of laws. The courts will not act on a judgment which seems to have been improperly obtained, nor will they enforce a foreign law which is not in accordance with natural justice as we understand it. The foregoing rules are not peculiar to Eng. land; they are followed by the courts of other countries; French courts give effect to English judgments. See also CAPITULATION, CONSUL.For Foreign Attachment, see ATTACHMENT; for Foreign Money, in law, see TENDER. Foreign Legion (Légion Étrangère), a body of foreigners of all nationalities, many of them ne'er-do-wells and men with a past,' or even unmitigated blackguards, was recruited for the French service, organised at Toulon in 1831, and sent to assist in the conquest of Algeria, where in 1834, spite of severe losses in the field, their numbers rose to 5600; four battalions being German, one Spanish, and one partly Polish and partly Italian, engaged for from three to five years. In the Crimea 900 (out of 3200) succumbed. They fought well in Mexico and the Franco-German war, and in 1884 were reorganised in two regiments. It is stationed as required, and is under French officers. The discipline is very severe, and in some respects cruel. See (as well as Ouida's Under Two Flags) J. P. Le Poer, A Modern Legionary (1904).-In the Spanish Foreign Legion serving in Morocco, peculiarly barbarous conditions were reported in 1921. Foreign Office. See SECRETARY OF STATE. Forel, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE (1841-1912), was born and died at Morges, on the Lake of Geneva, of whose seiches,' geology, natural history, &c., he made a scientific study. He wrote Le Léman (1892-1902) and Handbuch der Seenkunde (1901). Foreland, NORTH and SOUTH, two promon. tories of England, on the east coast of Kent, between which are the Downs and Goodwin Sands. North Foreland, the Cantium of Ptolemy, which forms the north-east angle of the county, consists of chalky cliffs, nearly 200 feet high. South Foreland, also composed of chalk cliffs, is 16 miles S. of North Foreland. It was off this part of the coast that the four days' sea-fight between Monk and De Ruyter took place in 1666. Both Forelands have lighthouses. Forensic Medicine. See MEDICAL JURIS. PRUDENCE. Foreshore. See SEASHORE. Foreshortening, a term in Painting or Drawing, applied to signify that a figure, or a portion of a figure, which is intended to be viewed by the spectator directly or nearly in front, is so represented as to convey the notion of its being projected forward; and, though by mere comparative measurement occupying a much smaller space on the surface, yet to give the same idea of length or size as if it had been projected laterally. frequent in forests, particularly in the New Forest, Hampshire. It is a small insect, about four lines long, of a shining brown colour, with some yellow. Living on the blood of its host, it especially infests the tail, belly, and flanks. The insect passes the larval stage and becomes a pupa within the mother. One only is produced at a time, enclosed in a relawhich the insect finally emerges by bursting open a tively large, black, bead-like, tough cocoon, from kind of lid. This Forest Laws. Forest is defined by Coke to be a safe preserve for wild animals (fera) of the chase. A forest, in the sense of the law of Eng. land, is a large tract of open ground, not neces sarily covered with wood, but usually containing woodland interspersed with pasture, and forming part of the property of the monarch, and governed by a special code, called the forest law. particular law not only had reference to matters connected with hunting and the like, but generally governed the persons living within the forest in all their relations. Though the privilege of forest belongs of right to the sovereign alone, it may be granted by him in favour of a subject, who becomes entitled to exercise the privileges of forest in the district assigned. This right was exercised by the Saxon kings. William the Conqueror greatly extended the royal forests, 'afforesting' and putting under forest laws vast districts in Hamp hire and Yorkshire (but did not lay them waste or remove houses or churches); he also made several penalties for offences against the game. The laws of the forest were first reduced to a code by the Forest Charter of 1217. Under William II., Henry I., and Stephen the cruel oppression increased for those whose lands were afforested; and Henry II. made extensive new afforestations, but was forced to relax the severity of the forest laws by passing a statute known as the Assize of Woodstock, 1184. This placed the forest law on a definite footing apart from the common law, and ordained that special forest courts should be held regularly for each forest-(1) the Woodmote or court of attachment, every forty days; (2) the Swainmote or court of freeholders, thrice a year, for inquiry; and (3) the Justice-seat or Eyre of the Forest, once every three years, a court of record and conviction, presided over by the chief-justice in eyre, acting as the king's commissioner. This was the highest forest official, though there were foresters and others attached to each royal forest; and no one could own a forest or appoint a forester except the king. In course of time irregularities and abuses crept in; and a detailed history of British forestry from about the end of the 11th to near the close of the 15th century would be a continuous record of attempted affores. tations and reafforestations on the part of the kings, and of enforced perambulations of bounda ries and disafforestation of usurped lands when the barons were strong enough to wring such conces sions from the sovereign. Thus in 1215 Magna reign (1216-72) new charters were obtained; as Carta modified the forest laws, and in Henry III.'s also during the 14th and 15th centuries, when those holding land in or near a royal forest were subject to grievous oppression. The right of the sovereign to create a forest is by the common law confined to lands of his own demesne. Henry II. had arbitrarily exercised his power by afforesting the lands of his subjects; but by this charter of Henry III. it was provided that all forests so made should be disafforested. By the same charter the penalties for destroying game were greatly modified, it being provided that no man should lose e or limb for slaying deer, but that the punishment should be restricted to fine or imprisonment for a year and a day. Chap. 11 contains a Dipterous insect, parasitic on horses, oxen, &c., the following curious privilege: Whatsoever arch Forestalling. See ENGROSSING. Forest-fly, or HORSE-FLY (Hippobosca equina), α Forest-fly (Hippobosca equina), magnified: z, natural size; b, the pupa, as deposited by the mother. bishop, bishop, earl, or baron, coming to us at our commandment, passing by our forest, it shall be lawful for him to take and kill one or two of our deer by view of our forester if he be present; or else he shall cause one to blow an horn for him, that he seem not to steal our deer; and likewise they shall do returning from us. Charles I.'s attempts to impose penalties and exact fines for alleged encroachments on the ancient boundaries of the forests, though the right to the lands thus taken was fortified by possession for several centuries, were among the first grievances with which the Long Parliament dealt. Since the passing of the act for the 'certainty of forests' (16 Car. I. chap. 16), the laws of the forest have practically ceased. The last Court of Justice-seat at which business was transacted was held in the reign of Charles I. before Lord Holland; the office of itinerant forest justices was not abolished until 1817, the criminal law of the forest having been almost wholly repealed half a century before. William the Conqueror acquired many such tracts, and he extended their boundaries and gave them the name of foresta or forests,' two of the largest being the New Forest in Hants and the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire, both of which were formed before 1086. Lands thus reserved for the king's deer were said to be 'afforested;' and new 'forest laws' of a much more cruel and stringent character than had obtained before 1066 were applied to their administration. For the history of these forests, see FOREST LAWS. The office of chief-justice was not abolished by act of parliament till 1817, when his duties were entrusted to the First Commissioner of Woods and Forests. And now the existing remnants of these ancient royal forests are administered by the commissioners under an act of 1852. Scotland forest laws framed on the English model, but nothing like so oppressive, were introduced at a comparatively late date, probably during the 15th century; while in Ireland, at a still later date, only arboricultural enactments seem to have had force, from 1634 onwards. In In Coke's time there were sixty-nine royal forests; of these the principal were the New The planting of trees in Britain for utility or Forest, Sherwood, Dean, Windsor, Epping, Dart- ornament certainly dates at least as far back as moor, Wychwood in Oxfordshire; Salcey, Whittle- the Roman period, and most of our common woodbury, and Rockingham in Northamptonshire; Wal- land trees have been introduced, along with many tham in Lincolnshire; and Richmond in York- others serving purely ornamental purposes, which shire. Some of these were disafforested as recently grow well in our mild and equable climate, free as 1850, and now only four are preserved-Windsor from extremes of summer heat and winter cold. and Wolmer as the exclusive property of the crown, The indigenous kinds include common and sessile New Forest and Dean with greatly circumscribed oak, ash, beech, hornbeam, Scots elm, white and privileges, popular rights overshadowing crown goat willow, aspen, birch, alder, rowan, and cherry rights. Scotland has many royal forests in among broad-leaved trees, and Scots pine and yew Perthshire, Athole, Glenartney, Glenfinlas, Glen- among conifers; besides shrubs like field-maple, almond, &c.; in Aberdeenshire, the Stocket, Dyce, hawthorn, holly, juniper, &c. But to the Romans Kintore, Benachie, Drum, Birse, Braemar; in For- we owe the English elm, sweet chestnut, black and farshire, Platan, Montrethmont, Kilgerry; in Kin- white poplar, lime, and service; while subsequent cardine, Cowie and Durris; in Banffshire, Boyne introductions date from much later periods-15th and Enzie; in Elgin, Darnaway, &c. South of the century, sycamore and crack willow; 16th, maple, Forth were those of Torwood, Cadzow, Ettrick, plane, spruce, and maritime pine; 17th, silver fir, Selkirk, Jedburgh, Traquair, the New Forest in Canadian poplar, horse-chestnut, robinia, and larch Dumfriesshire, &c. The forest code of Scotland (England); 18th, Weymouth and Corsican pine, (Leges Forestarum), though neither so complete and larch (Scotland); 19th, Austrian pine, Douglas nor administered with the same rigour as that of fir, Menzies spruce, Monterey, Lawson's, and Nootka England, was still generally complained of for its cypresses, giant arbor vitæ, and Japanese larch; severe penalties and vexatious restraints. The while in the 20th century, as yet, the American grant of a right of forestry conferred the same larch may perhaps prove to be the most important privilege as if the ground over which it extended new species, with the hybrid (European × Japanese) had been originally, and had continued to be, larch." a king's forest. See DEER-FORESTS, FORESTRY, GAME LAWS, MAGNA CARTA, WOODS AND FORESTS; the articles on Dean, Epping, Sherwood, New Forest, &c.; Turner, Select Pleas of the Forests (1902); Cox, Royal Forests (1905). Forest Marble, a member of the middle division of the Jurassic System (q.v.), of which the typical beds occur in Wychwood Forest, Oxfordshire. The principal bed is a fissile limestone, containing large numbers of dark-coloured shells, and capable of being polished and used as 'marble.' Forestry is the science and art of forming and economically cultivating forests; practically the art of managing growing timber. It is accordingly rather sylviculture than arboriculture, bnt may be taken to include both branches. The history of British forestry can best be understood from a brief survey of what took place in England. At one time the greater part of the British Isles was probably thickly covered with primeval woods, though most of our common timber-trees have been introduced; but even before the Roman period extensive clearances had already been made. In the Saxon and Danish periods the chief use of the woodlands was for hunting and for the pannage of great herds of swine, while wide tracts containing woods and other lands were here and there reserved as " royal hunting-grounds.' From this it would appear that from the 11th to the 15th century, while England was groaning under the worst tyranny of the oppressive forest laws, no important new kinds of timber-trees were introduced. But it is certain that arboriculture was habitually practised, and chiefly in the form of coppice with standards, long before the latter date. This seems clearly proved by the Statute of forests, chases, and purlieus' (or disafforested Enclosure passed in 1482, which applied only to the lands), and permitted landowners having woods within the same to fence their young coppices against deer and cattle for seven years after each fall, instead of only for three years, as had then apparently long been customary. But even at that early date there began to be great fear of a serious want of timber both for ship and house building and for fuel and firewood; and the great measure taken to obviate this danger was the passing of a Statute of Woods in 1543, of a compulsory and prohibitive nature, and applying to all the woods in the English realm. According to the rotation in which the coppice or underwood was worked (fourteen years or under, fourteen to twenty-four, and over twenty-four years), the falls were to be enclosed and fenced for four, six, or seven years; and on every acre of wood felled twelve standils or storers of oak' had to be left, or, failing oak, then of 'elm, ash, asp, or beech,' to make up the number of twelve standards per acre likely to prove to be timber-trees. These were then the five most highly prized kinds of timber, and especially the oak for shipbuilding. But those provisions soon seeming inadequate, the time of enclosure was in 1570 increased by two years in each case. About this time, during the Elizabethan period, considerable advances in forestry appear to have been made. In Taverner's Book of Survey of the royal forests in 1565 the 'setting' or sowing of acorns and beech-mast is mentioned (as regards the regeneration of old woods, see OAK and BEECH), and one of the first instances of thus also raising oak woods where they were not already growing is said to have been thirteen acres in a corner of Cranbourne Chase, in Windsor Forest, about 1588 or shortly after that. Down to the end of the 16th century all the plantations' made were probably sown, while planting with live plants was only introduced early in the 17th century owing to the acorns and other tree-seeds being eaten by mice and voles, birds, &c. Thus Arthur Standish, in his New Directions for Increasing Timber and Firewood (of which the 2nd edition was issued in 1615), urged that, to obviate destruction of seed by field-mice, the remedy for such as would raise plants is by nurseries, where the mice may be destroyed by traps.' All through the 17th and 18th centuries growing anxiety about timber for shipbuilding and other purposes necessitated close attention to forestry in all parts of the United Kingdom, and many acts of parliament were passed relating to woods and plantations; while in royal forests, and in the Forest of Dean in particular, regular schemes of management were introduced. So great was the scarcity of oak-timber in 1660 that the Commissioners of the Navy asked the advice of the Royal Society, and the result was the reading of a paper by John Evelyn on October 15, 1662, which was expanded and published as Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees, in 1664, and which, passing into the 4th edition before the author's death in 1706, gave a great stimulus to planting for profit and orna. ment throughout Britain. And its influence continued all through the 18th and down into the 19th century, as numerous subsequent editions appeared (6th to 11th, 1786-1825), edited and annotated by Dr A. Hunter of York. The only other authors whose influence on British arboriculture has been at all comparable with Evelyn's are Sir Walter Scott and Loudon, during the first half of the 19th century. It is noteworthy that one effect of the Statute of Woods (1543) and of subsequent modifying acts was to enforce a particular method of treatment of woods-namely, coppice or underwood consisting of oak, ash, hazel, chestnut, birch, willow, dogwood, &c., with standards of oak, ash, &c.—which thus compulsorily became the national form of British arboriculture. This secured for the standards of various ages in the copsewoods a free growing-space, enabling them to form large limbs and grow into crooked and curved timber suitable for shipbuilding. And so generation after generation of foresters and woodmen grew up in the firm belief that this was not only the best, but also the only suitable way of producing good timber of any kind whatever, with the result that in course of time, when highwoods also became a common method of timber-growing, there was a strong inclination to overthin greatly. This great and very usual fault of British arboriculture, down almost to the present day, was encouraged by the ruling idea that for the proper development of timber-trees the distance from stem to stem should equal one-third of their height-a generalisation which gives the same treatment to light-demanding trees like oak and larch, and to shade-enduring kinds like beech and spruce. This specially arboricultural copsewood system continued to be practised with a considerable degree of regularity until well into the 19th century; and in its earlier years the English copses were among the most profitable portions of landed estates, as the underwoods also supplied hurdles, hop-poles, and small wood, everywhere in great demand and saleable at good prices. But as the market for oak-bark and small coppice-wood has changed completely, and is very poor now compared with what it used to be, many of the old coppices, with or without standards, have been converted into highwoods, in which the main object is to grow trees having large, long, clean stems. The highwood method of timber-growing became considerably extended when large plantations of larch and other conifers were made in Britain about the middle of the 18th century, and in Ireland about the end of it. During the first half of the 19th century, however, the old national system of arboriculture began to decline, and became almost a lost art so far as regularity in storing and thinning out the different age-classes of standards was concerned. After Britain obtained command of the seas cheap foreign timber could be imported to any extent necessary, and less attention was paid to the woodlands. The decline was more rapid when steam communications improved by land and water. The growing neglect of the woodlands increased when the import-duty was taken off colonial timber in 1846, and became intensified when the import-duty was also removed from all foreign timber in 1866. Teak and iron were ousting oak for shipbuilding, cheap and good coniferous timber and sawn wood were apparently obtainable in inexhaustible abundance, and the value of home-grown woodland produce of all sorts fell so low that timber-growing, for centuries an important rural industry, became unprofitable, and many of the existing woods and plantations came to be practically treated as game-coverts and ornamental parts of the large landed estates. Since 1866, however, the year in which what has proved a death-blow was given to the old system of British arboriculture, the great economic changes throughout the world have profoundly affected the question of Britain's timber-supplies. The vast increase in population and the enormous industrial development that have taken place in America since the reconstruction of the United States, and in Germany since the union of the empire in 1871, made these two formerly wood-exporting countries our keenest competitors for the surplus supplies of the great timber-producing tracts in Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia. But even in these still well-wooded countries there is less timber now available than formerly, and the cost of extraction is greater, so that prices have risen greatly and have constantly an upward tendency. Hence the importance of trying to improve British forestry and to adopt some wellconsidered national scheme of timber planting throughout Britain, in order to increase work for our rural population, and to ensure the steady supply of our annual requirements in timber and other wood in years to come, has engaged the attention of government. Although the British Empire contains the largest and the most valuable forests in the world, Britain itself is one of the most poorly wooded countries. In 1915 its woodland area was about 3,098,000 acres, of which 1,730,000 acres were in England, 188,000 in Wales, 880,000 in Scotland, 300,000 in Ireland. Much has recently been done for the improvement of British forestry and for the instruction of the public in matters relating thereto, and in urging government to deal with the timber question, by the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and collegiate centres has been to a great extent the Royal Society of Arts, the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society (1854), the Royal Arbori cultural Society of England (1881), and the Irish Forestry Society (1901); and it was mainly to their efforts in these directions that a number of official inquiries and reports were made in 18851918. But so far as planting is concerned, only very little practical result followed. Small sums were granted and lent, chiefly for education, from the fund made available by the Development Act (1909). The Great War made foreign timber difficult to get, and British woods were felled so lavishly that the problem became acute. In 1919 a Forestry Act was passed, by which a Forestry Commission was set up, charged with the duty of promoting the interests of British forestry generally. The functions of the English and Scottish Boards of Agriculture and the Irish Department of Agriculture, so far as they related to forestry, were handed over to the commission, which is empowered to acquire land for afforestation; promote the sale, utilisation, and conversion of timber; make grants and loans to persons and local authorities for The climatic and physical effects of large compact afforestation (including replanting); manage forests blocks of woodland consist in tending (1) to equalise or advise on management; set up and carry on the temperature both of the soil and of the atmoforest industries; collect statistics; establish and sphere, and to diminish extreme differences in each aid schools; promote research; prevent damage by of these during summer and winter; (2) to increase rabbits, hares, and vermin. Greater facilities for the relative humidity of the air, and also perhaps instruction in modern forestry are required, espe- | slightly increase the total amount of dew, mist, cially in Scotland, where there is greatest scope and rainfall; (3) to absorb and retain moisture in for timber-growing. A course, for the most part the soil, and especially in the upper layer of humus, in Continental forestry, was instituted in 1885 at thus helping to prevent floods, to maintain the Cooper's Hill, but transferred in 1905 to Oxford perennial flow of springs and brooks, and to act as University, where probationers are trained for the purifying filters in water-catchment areas; (4) to Indian Forest Service and for forest appointments protect the surface-soil from erosion during heavy in the crown colonies. Other university centres at rainfall; and (5) to help to purify the air from which lectures are given include Edinburgh (1889), excess of carbon dioxide. Their economic uses are Newcastle (1891), Bangor (1904), Cambridge (1907), (1) to provide work for part of the rural population, and Dublin (1913), the most comprehensive courses and especially during winter, when other work is being at Edinburgh and Cambridge; while some- scarce; (2) to provide part of the timber now inwhat similar instruction is provided at various agri-ported in vast quantities for industrial purposes, cultural colleges. In some cases degrees (B.Sc.) are and thus increase the sum-total of wages payable to granted, in other cases diplomas or certificates; workmen in our own country; (3) to give shelter and certificates in forestry are also given after to fields and farm live-stock; and (4) to add to the special examinations by the Highland and Agri- attractions of country life by increasing facilities cultural Society of Scotland and the Surveyors' for sport. On the average one permanent woodman Institution, London. For the training of young is required for every hundred to one hundred and woodmen a forest school was opened for England fifty acres of woodland; but this gives no indication and Wales in the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, of the total amount of employment of various kinds by the Commissioners of Woods and Forests in that large woodlands worked on business principles 1904, and in 1905 a similar forest school for would ensure to the rural population in planting, Ireland was organised at Avondale, Co. Wicklow, tending, and felling timber crops; in preparing, exon an estate acquired along with adjoining wood-tracting, transporting, and converting the timber; lands for this purpose by the Department of and in distributing the converted timber and other Agriculture and Technical Instruction. woodland produce. Any great national scheme of planting would ultimately mean that many millions of pounds sterling would annually be circulated among our own rural population in place of being sent abroad as at present. Even 3,000,000 acres of well-managed coniferous timber-crops worked with a rotation of sixty years would give an annual mature fall of 50,000 acres, besides thinnings in younger woods, and would probably yield on the average a total crop of about 100 tons weight of timber per acre, or about 5,000,000 tons of raw material having to be cut, dressed, transported, converted, and distributed. The probationers trained at Oxford, Cambridge, or Edinburgh for the Indian Forest Department go out as officers in the Imperial Forest Service, while officers of the Provincial Forest Services are trained at the Indian Forest College at Dehra Dún (United Provinces), and members of the subordinate staff (foresters, &c.) are taught at local forest schools organised in different provinces. Since the formation of the Indian Forest Department in 1863 great progress has been made in the administration and development of the vast forests yielding a large revenue. In most of the self-governing dominions, however, it is only of recent years that attention has been given to the conservation of timber-growing lands, and most of them have organised a forest service similar to that in India. Canada was the first dominion to establish a chair of forestry (at Toronto 1907). In several of the crown colonies and protectorates (Ceylon, Federated Malay States, Kenya, Nigeria, &c.) the forest administration follows the lines of the Indian model, though on a much smaller scale. The modern forestry now taught at university 1. Sylviculture deals with the formation, tending, and reproduction or regeneration of woodland crops, whether coppices, simple or stored (sylva cædua; see COPSE), or highwoods (saltus) of any description, between which two different classes of woods and plantations there are important legal distinctions (especially with regard to entailed estates in England). Unless this main branch has been preceded by a course of forest botany, consideration has first to be given to the woodland trees and their sylvicultural characteristics; their relation to |