Braidwood in Edinburgh was built by Tilley of London in 1824, and required forty men to work it. When worked at full pressure-viz. about forty strokes per minute-it delivered approximately 140 gallons per minute, at 60 lb. pressure, through two lines of hose with -inch nozzle or jet on each, giving an average altitude for each jet of 65 feet. Steam Fire-engines were first used in a practical form in 1860 in London. One built by Shand Mason was hired by the London Fire Establishment for two years before being purchased by the authorities. The weight was three tons. It was a horizontal engine of one cylinder, and had a pumping capacity of 150 gallons per minute. The modern fireengine, known as the 'steamer,' usually has a pumping capacity of either 350 or 450 gallons per minute. In the horse-drawn engine the power and pumping capacity of the fire-engine is limited by the energy two horses are able to exert in taking the engine at a rapid pace to a fire. An engine of a pumping capacity of 450 gallons per minute weighs, when loaded with eight firemen, 3 tons 5 cwt. The boiler is water tubular; the tubes are inch internal diameter, and are arranged in rows horizontally, slightly inclined to assist circulation. In the boiler of the 450-gallon size engine there are 160 tubes, affording, in addition to the walls and crown of the boiler, a large steamgenerating surface. When the engines are standing in the fire-station the boilers are usually heated by means of steam from a stationary circulating boiler, or a gas-ring placed inside the fire-box. The fire is ready laid, and steam should be raised within from four to five minutes after lighting up. The working steam-pressure is 140 lb., and this pressure should be available by the time the engine has reached a fire and the hose has been laid out ready for work. The engine has two steam-cylinders direct double acting on the pump. The pistons of the steamcylinders have each two piston rods passing on either side of a double-throw crank-shaft, and are connected to a crosshead on the pump-rod; from a joint on the crosshead a connecting-rod returns to the pin of the crank-shaft. The cranks being at right angles, the engine may be started from any position. Eccentrics are fitted at the outer ends of the crank-shaft, where are also light-weighted solid fly wheels about 10 inches diameter. To ensure steady discharge the delivery side of the pump is fitted with a capacious air-vessel. The suctiontube is 5 inches diameter, and connections for four delivery-hose are provided. The altitude and number of the jets depend upon the size of nozzle employed. The following table gives the average altitude of a fire jet or stream under normal atmospheric conditions: Fire-nozzle.-The nozzle or nose-pipe forms the most important factor in the equipment of a fireengine. It is used to determine the diameter, altitude, and efficiency of the water-jet or fire-stream. The internal bore of the nozzle requires to be most accurately finished, the surface free from irregularities or scratches. The most minute scratch on the inner surface at the edge of the lip of a nozzle will break the water column at that point, causing it to spray. The object of the nozzle is to produce a continued, smooth, solid column of water for as great a length from the discharging nozzle as possible. The continuity and solidity of the column of water depends upon the resistance due to the atmospheric conditions. The most favourable conditions are a calm, still atmosphere in which the column of water is only broken by the resistance it makes owing to the velocity with which it passes through the air, and, secondly, by its own weight in breaking away when the velocity decreases as the water reaches the maximum altitude. It is impossible to determine accurately the length a vertical or a horizontal jet of water will attain as an effectual fire-stream owing to the above conditions, the governing factor always being the force of the wind. The following table is taken from Experiments relating to Hydraulics of Fire-Streams, published in the United States by J. R. Freeman. The figures are for jets from nozzles of the ordinary fire-brigade working diameters, through 100 feet of ordinary canvas hose of 24 inches diameter, working under ordinary conditions. Column V shows the vertical and column H the horizontal effective striking distance: Each particular diameter of water-jet reaches its maximum altitude under a certain pressure. If the pressure is increased beyond that particular point, the jet meeting with greater air-resistance breaks at the point of leaving the nozzle, and the altitude is greatly diminished. The maximum pressures giving best results are: inch, 100 lb.; 1 inch, 110 Ib.; I inches, 140 lb. Hose-box and Gear Carried.-That portion of the fire-engine which forms the seat for the fireman is known as the hose-box; in it are carried several hundred yards of hose, branch-pipes, nozzles, standpipes, hand-pump, canvas buckets, life-lines, hauling-lines, canvas dam or cistern, jumping-sheet, saw, large felling-axe, cold-chisels, hammer, &c. Automobile Fire-engines were introduced by Merryweather of London, and first came into general use in 1894. They are propelled by steam, the boiler being of the ordinary quick-steaming tubular fire-engine type, fired by oil fuel. The engine consists of two steam-cylinders driving a crank-shaft with link motion reversing gear. The crank-shaft is geared on to a counter-shaft driving two chain sprocket wheels which are connected to the rear road-wheels by steel roller chains. The pumps are placed below the crank-shaft, directly under the steam-cylinders. The pump-pistons, being provided with quick-action couplings, are thereby put into gear with the engine, which is thrown out of gear with the counter-shaft when the pumps are in use. There is accommodation for a large quantity of hose and other appliances. The speed of the engine is from 30 to 40 miles an hour. In order that the engine may be ready to start immediately for a fire, steam is maintained in the boiler by means of a stationary steam-heater boiler in the fire-station. These engines have pumps capable of delivering 500 gallons per minute at 140 lb. pump-pressure. Petrol Motor-pumping Fire-engines, in general use in fire-brigades, are driven by engines of the heavy commercial vehicle type, having four or six cylinders of 50 b.h.p. or six cylinders of 75 b.h.p. The average speed is 35 miles per hour, and the pumping capacity is 350 gallons per minute driven by the 50 h.p. engine, and 600 gallons per minute driven by the 75 h. p. engine. There are two types of pumps fitted to the petrol motor fire-engines-viz. the piston or plunger pump, and the centrifugal or turbine pump. The plunger-pump, which requires to run at a low speed-250 revolutions per minute-consists of three pump-barrels in one casting in triangular form, the pump-pistons being driven by a single crank on a shaft running through the centre of the pump-casting, each pump-rod being coupled on to the crankpin. Each revolution of the crank makes one stroke for each pump-piston. The pump crank-shaft is driven from the motor by means of a silent chain gearing from the first motion shaft through the gear-box. This pump is known as the Hatfield' type of reciprocating pump. The centrifugal or turbine pump consists of a centrifugal pump of one or more stages, geared up from the motor to run at speeds varying from 1000 to 2000 revolutions per minute. One of the features of this class of pump is that, the centrifugal pump being unable to create a vacuum, it cannot lift water; consequently a reciprocating air-pump is fitted to the engine, being driven by a separate friction clutch or gearing from the main-pump shaft of the petrol motor. When the pump is required to be brought into operation, the air-pump is first started to create the necessary vacuum in the suction pipe to bring the water to the level of the main centrifugal pump. When this has been accomplished the main pump is put into gear by engaging the pump clutch on the main shaft. Petrol motor-engines operate through one or more lines of hose as circumstances may require. A 600-gallon capacity engine will give its highest efficiency at a high altitude through one line having a 14-inch nozzle, two lines having each 1-inch nozzles, three lines having 3-inch nozzles, or four to six lines having 3-inch to -inch nozzles. These engines may be operated to pump through 500 to 600 yards of hose, but the longer the length of hose the greater the loss of pump efficiency due to the friction of the water against the walls of the hose. Hose-tender.-The hose-tender is used in firebrigades as a vehicle to carry hose, ladders, and general appliances for use at a fire. Being of lighter weight than the fire or pumping engines, it is able. to accommodate a larger quantity of appliances and a greater number of firemen. This vehicle is known in America as the hose and ladder truck.' Electric traction for fire-brigade vehicles has been adopted by some British brigades, but is restricted by limited output of portable storagebatteries. The average maximum mileage obtained with a heavy motor vehicle from one set of batteries is 40 miles. The power is thus limited to propulsion, and is not available for pumpingpower. In some large cities on the Continent electric-power for traction is largely used for hosetenders and fire-escapes. Steam pumping-engines are also mounted on an electric chassis, the steamboiler being used to supply the power for the pump. Hose.-There are three descriptions of fire-hose in general use-viz. leather, plain canvas, and canvas with a lining of rubber. Until 1880 leather hose was almost exclusively used from the time of its introduction. It was introduced or invented by the Dutch engineer Van der Heide in 1672. It was the first flexible hose used, the strips of leather and joints being sewn together. About 1820 the joints and seams in the leather were riveted together by copper rivets; and this method is still adopted. Leather hose has almost entirely gone out of use for fire-brigade work, but is still largely used on board ship in the navy and H.M. dockyards. Canvas hose having a rubber lining is used by some brigades, principally owing to the absence of percolation or sweating along the hose when under pressure. Plain canvas hose is woven from the best quality flax of about twelve yarns to the inch in the weft or horizontal yarn, and fifteen yarns to the inch in the warp or longitudinal yarn. Wellmade hand-woven canvas hose will stand more hard wear than any other kind of hose, and is more easily repaired. It requires, however, very careful treatment after use; it must be thoroughly cleansed and carefully dried. The average life of a length of hose for fire-brigade work is ten years, and the average cost of plain canvas 2s. 6d. per yard. The hose in general use varies in diameter from 2 to 3 inches, 24 and 23 inches being most generally used. The diameter of hose is an important factor in effective results of the waterdelivery of the fire-engine, considerable loss of pressure being due to friction. 8-inch diameter hose absorbs 60 per cent. less by 24-inch diameter hose absorbs 40 per cent. less by 2-inch diameter hose absorbs 20 per cent. less by 24-inch diameter hose absorbs 30 per cent. more by 24-inch diameter hose absorbs 70 per cent. more by 24-inch diameter hose absorbs twice as much as 24-inch 2-inch diameter hose absorbs three times as much as The loss due to friction is greater in unlined or plain canvas hose than in either rubber-lined or leather. The comparative friction losses are: 30 per cent. in plain canvas hose; 25 per cent. in thin rubber-lined hose; 12 per cent. in leather hose; 10 per cent. in heavy rubber-lined hose. Plain canvas hose is one-fourth the weight of either rubber-lined or leather hose; it is more durable, of much less bulk, and consequently more compact for stowing away in the engines. It is also stronger than either leather or rubber-lined hose, and will stand an average pressure of 250 lb. to the square inch. For these reasons it has been found most suitable for fire-brigade purposes. Plain canvas hose costs one-third that of rubber-lined or leather. Suction-hose requires to be flexible but noncollapsible. It is usually made of several plies of rubber and canvas, having embedded in the walls of the hose spiral steel wire to keep the walls rigid. The suction-hose must be very carefully made and treated; the slightest leakage on the suction-pipe would entirely disable an engine from drawing water from below the level of the pump. Any mixture of air with the water coming in from the suction side of the pump will cause the engine to work irregularly, and, instead of a steady, solid stream at the nozzle, produce a broken, intermittent, sprayed jet. Fireplugs.-A fireplug is a conical wooden plug driven into a prepared socket in the street watermain. When the water is required for fire purposes, the plug is loosened by a lever, and the pressure of water drives it out. A stand-pipe with an open valve at the top and a tapered shoe at the foot is inserted in the pipe-socket and driven home, being secured by wooden wedges against the surface-box at the road-level. Fireplugs have been generally superseded by the fire-hydrant, which is enclosed in an iron surface-box on the footpath, and consists of a mechanical valve controlling the water-supply to one or two outlets, which are fitted with a connection to receive the hose or a connecting elbow direct. The water is always under the control of the valve. Another form is the ball hydrant. A special fitting is attached to the water-pipe having an outlet at right angles in the form of a globular box, which contains a vul canite or light solid rubber ball larger in diameter than either the water inlet or outlet. The pressure of water forces the ball up and closes the orifice. The special fitting at the road surface has a bayonet attachment which engages with the bottom of the stand-pipe, the latter having a screw-down spindle through its centre; and when the water is required the spindle is screwed down and depresses the vulcanite ball, allowing the water to flow round it and up through the stand-pipe. Fire-escapes.-Fire-escapes vary in construction according to the requirements of particular districts. Ordinarily they consist of three-section telescopic ladders attached to a two-wheeled base, and carried on the motor fire-engine, from which they are detached and worked separately at the fire. This class of escape has a maximum extension of 55 feet. For higher altitudes mechanically operated ladders are fixed on a motor-propelled base, and are in four telescopic sections, carried horizontally on the motor-truck. When required to be brought into operation, the ladders are operated by a series of clutches driven by the motor-engine. The ladders are first brought up to a vertical position, after which they are extended to the required altitude and angle. These ladders, in addition to being used for saving life, are also used in fighting fire by directing water-jets into the upper floors of buildings. The ladders are extended in front of the building without requiring to rest against the walls for support. The fireman is then able to direct the jet of water from the top of the ladder into the building, the directing position being regulated by turning the ladder at the base to the desired angle. The maximum extension is 85 feet from the ground. Scaling-ladders are short lengths of ladder about 7 feet each, carried on the fire-engines. Each length is fitted with steel sockets on the outside at the top end and on the inside at the bottom. The ladder is tapered, so that the top of one ladder will fit inside the bottom of the next, by which means several lengths are fitted together, making a ladder as long as may be desired. Hook-ladders, sometimes called 'pompier' ladders, being a French introduction, are made light but strong, and are fitted at the top with a long hook at right angles to the sides of the ladder. One fireman is able to raise the ladder from the ground and hook it on to the window-sill of the first-floor window, pushing the hook through the glass. The fireman then ascends to the window-sill; standing there, he raises the ladder to the next window-sill above; and so on. Jumping-sheets consist of canvas sheets fitted on the outer edge with a series of rope hand-loops. The sheets are usually 10 feet in diameter or square, and are stretched out and held taut by the hand- | loops under the windows, from which persons to be rescued jump and are caught in the sheets. Methods of obtaining Water.—Each fire-engine carries a collapsible canvas dam or cistern, which is supplied from a connection to a street hydrant. The water from the hydrant flows through an open bore and is collected in the cistern; the suctionpipe of the engine is put into the cistern, and the water is pumped out as fast as it flows in. Another method is to attach several connections from hydrants direct on to the suction-chamber of the engine, the pressure on the gravitation-supply thereby assisting the pumping power of the fireengine. This method of direct gravitation-supply cannot always be employed, being governed by the water-supply of the particular district. A third method of supplying the fire-engine is to draw direct from large reservoirs, rivers, docks, or canals by means of the flexible suction-pipe. The recog nised all-round maximum vertical lift from the level of the water to the pump is 25 feet, though petrol turbine-engines have been known, on official tests, by the aid of an air-pump on the suction-pipe, to lift water 28 feet. Chemical Extinguishers are of American origin, and consist of small cylinders of 2 and of 4 gallons capacity. There are two types used for two general classes of fire. Of the first type, what is known as the soda-acid is in more general use. The cylinder is sealed, and is filled with a solution of bicarbonate of soda, and has lodged in a bracket a bottle of sulphuric acid. When the cylinder is required for use, the acid bottle is broken by the compression of a small piston, and the admixture of the acid with a soda solution causes the generation of carbonic acid gas, which is discharged through a 3-inch nozzle under a pressure of approximately 150 lb. to the square inch. There are no extinguishing properties in the liquid, the gas merely acts as the propelling power to discharge the solution on to the fire. The second of this type consists of a similar cylinder, in which the pressure is generated by a cartridge of carbonic gas or air which is punctured by the piston, the liquid being discharged by the air or gas liberated from the cartridge. These extinguishers are used for extinguishing fires of burning material, and are very effective in dealing with an outbreak of fire in the early stages, or to keep a fire in check while the larger appliances are being brought into operation. They are largely used for fire-prevention in private houses and public buildings. For dealing with petrol fires and inflammable oils or spirits a different type of extinguisher has been found essential. Of the two kinds the first consists of small cylinders containing carbon tetrachloride discharged by a small double-acting pump, the piston of which is operated by being driven in and out in such a way that a tiny jet of the acid is projected on to the burning liquids or material. When the acid is in contact with fire it produces a heavy blanket of carbonic acid gas, which smothers combustion. The second extinguisher of this type consists of a cylinder discharging a foam or thick frothy substance, the bubbles of which are formed by carbonic acid gas. These are most effective for smothering fire on large surfaces or in tanks of oils or petrol. The foam is discharged into the tank, where it floats over the surface of the oil and smothers the fire. Fireproof' Construction. -The term 'fireproof' as applied to buildings has so far not yet been justified, as no known method of building construction has been proof against effects of fire. The use of fire-resisting building materials is no protection against the furnishings, fittings, fixtures, or stock of a warehouse taking fire. When the contents of a building take fire a great heat is often very suddenly generated within the walls; consequently the greatest strain upon the structure is to resist effects of sudden changes of temperature on the various metals and minerals forming the component parts of the building materials. Experience of conflagrations in various large cities in different parts. of the world has demonstrated that no structural materials can withstand the chemical and physical effects of the great heat generated in an ordinary building on fire. Of all building materials sound timber has the advantage of being the best nonconductor of heat. If exposed to actual flame on all sides the timber will be charred and will slowly burn, but its solidity is not affected until it has almost burned through or at least until its stability has been seriously undermined; whilst properly bonded brick is the least affected of any of the harder materials, and has proved to be the most reliable under all circumstances and conditions of a conflagration. Structural iron or steel work should be adequately protected successfully to resist the effects of the great heat generated, and it is because the stability of metal work is seriously affected by the heat, without of necessity coming into contact with actual flame, that it is so much inferior to sound, solid timber, which is only affected when in a state of actual combustion. Well-burned brick of good quality, well laid in mortar, is the best protective covering known for steel and iron members and columns, and has the additional merit of adding to the stability of the structure. Stone is especially susceptible to damage when exposed to great heat. It is unsuitable, from a fire-resisting point of view, for either external work or column supports internally. This is very clearly demonstrated at the early stages of any fire to which it has been exposed; ornamental stonework is destroyed at the very early stages, and forms an element of danger and obstruction to the firemen when attacking the fire. Unprotected steel and iron work also fails at an early stage of a fire, and possesses the added disadvantage of pulling down the walls to which it is tied. Air-spaces in partitions and under floors should be rigidly excluded. Hollow partitions are not only readily destroyed, but form conduits conveying smoke and fire from one portion of the building to another. Large open areas assist the spread of fire, particularly in buildings having highly combustible contents; the larger the area the greater the intensity and severity of the fire. The fire-resisting construction of a building offers no protection in such a case. The report of the chief engineer appointed by the U.S. government on the great conflagration at Baltimore in February 1904 states: 'Stone of every description suffered severely, particularly projecting parts. Terra-cotta facings and ornamental work failed completely. Granite spalled [crumbled] badly, worse than any other stone under moderate heat. Marble spalled badly, but not so much as granite. Of all materials on external walls, properly bonded brickwork was the only thing that was really successful.' The Fireproofing of Wood and Soft Materials. The treatment of wood and fabrics by chemical solutions of various qualities renders inflammable materials flameproof, and so retards the spread of fire. It is not sufficient to treat the surface of wood only. The wood is placed in a huge cylinder, wherein the air and moisture are extracted by a vacuum-pump; after which an antipyren, run in in solution, is forced into the open pores. In most theatres the scenery, draperies, &c. are periodically impregnated by a solution of one of the many chemicals, sucli as borax, boracic acid, salts of ammonia, &c., which tend to check combustion. The treatment of such materials will not prevent their destruction in a conflagration, but it will prevent the scenery from bursting into flame should it come in contact with a naked light or an electric arc, in which case the material would carbonise and burn very slowly at the point of contact only. See various lectures on this subject by Professor Vivian Lewis, of Birmingham University. Fire-brigade Stations.-Fire-stations consist of a block of buildings in which are housed all the necessary appurtenances of a fire-brigade, including housing of the men with their families, workshops, stores, offices, gymnasium, drill-yard, &c. The engine-room-for horsed appliances-usually has accommodation for four or five engines, with stabling in the immediate rear of the engines. The horses stand in a stall facing the engines; the end of each stall is enclosed by a mechanically controlled door. On the ringing of an alarm the doors are opened either by automatic or electric contrivance. The horses are trained to run forward | and place themselves under the harness, which is suspended from spring clip-hooks above the pole of the engine. It is pulled down by one movement, and the horse stands harnessed and ready. Where the engines are automobiles there is of course no stabling. The engines, however, are on the same principle, each having a separate exit door, the engine standing immediately behind the door, ready to move forward when required. The firemen are housed above the engine-room and workshops, their bedrooms being connected with the electric firealarm installation. On the ringing of the alarm a light is put on in each bedroom. Simultaneously with the ringing of the fire-bell the men descend from their quarters on the upper floors by sliding down polished steel poles to the engine-room, where they find their fire uniforms and helmets, &c., mount the engines, and away. The average time taken to turn out a fire-engine in a well-equipped station is fifteen seconds by day and fifty seconds by night. Owing to the advances made in the introduction of mechanically propelled engines, one of the essential features of a fire-station is properly equipped workshops, wherein the necessary repairs to engines are expeditiously executed by the firemen. Fire Prevention.-It is estimated that of the large number of fires which occur in domestic households quite 50 per cent. are due to carelessness, and may be guarded against by the exercise of a few elementary precautions in everyday life. Unprotected gas-jets near dressing-tables and windows are amongst the principal causes of fires. The lighted gas, being required for dressing, is often fitted beside a window which is opened to admit the air. On some one's leaving the room the opening and closing of the door causes a sudden draught to arise between the window and the door, and this draws the windowcurtains on to the unprotected gas-flame, thus firing the curtain, which falls on the dressing-table. A gas-globe is a good preventive. Draperies round mantel-boards are similarly dangerous. If the drapery is loosely arranged, the draught from the open door will draw it towards the chimney and into contact with the fire in the grate. Draperies at fireplaces, if not entirely dispensed with, should be securely fastened at the sides to prevent their being blown about by draughts. The airing of linen in front of open fires is the frequent cause of fire, the garments being usually hung on drying-horses, backs of chairs, or high fenders. When they are dry their weight causes them to slip or roll off, inside the fender, or even on to the burning coal; or sparks fly out on to the drying material. Wire fire-guards are a preventive against sparks; and if the clothing be securely fastened to the horses or the chairs, this will effectually keep it from slipping off on to the fire. Carrying live-coal in a shovel from the fireplace of one room to that of another room is also a very dangerous practice. A small piece of burning coal falling from the shovel on to the carpet or the clothing will instantly set it on fire; and in the endeavour to extinguish it the shovel with the remainder of the burning coal is usually dropped, causing at once, it may be, a serious outbreak. Lighted tapers are the frequent cause of domestic fires, owing to carelessness on the part of the person carrying the taper or the candle in lighting up the gas throughout the house for the evening, or when using a lighted taper as a means of illumination at linen-presses, clothes closets, and the like. Searching for domestic pets under beds and tables with this form of naked light is naturally very apt to set the bedding or the clothing on fire. Benzine, methylated spirit, petrol, and other highly volatile spirits used for cleaning purposes in close proximity to naked lights or open fires are all of them highly dangerous. The spirit vapour is wafted about the apartment by the ordinary currents of air, and should the vapour become ignited flame will follow to its source in the cleaning material, with serious consequences. In the case of gasescapes, explosions can be avoided if care be taken to avoid the use of artificial lights and to empty the house or apartment of the gas. If the presence of the gas interferes with breathing, cover the mouth and nose with a damp cloth, handkerchief, or towel, proceed through the house from the bottom without a light, and open the window in every room-up from the bottom and down from the top -allowing the air to enter from the bottom of the window and drive the gas out at the top. No room or cupboard should be left unopened; and it should always be remembered that the gas will be strongest on the top floor and in the attics. Turn off the gas at the meter or the main as soon as possible; and after the house is free from gas and the supply of gas is turned on again, the defect will be easily detected by the smell at the point of escape. Cottonwool when used for decoration purposes is highly inflammable; and particularly when it is applied to clothing, its use exposes the wearer, should the wool become ignited, to almost certainly fatal consequences. Many serious disasters have been caused by the use of cotton-wool for the above purposes. Silicated cotton is a good substitute, and has a glistening effect when exposed to artificial light. Silicated cotton is impervious to the fire. Celluloid is another highly inflammable and dangerous commodity which is used largely for decorative articles of wearing apparel. Persons wearing or using celluloid combs should avoid the use of heated curling-tongs. Celluloid will burst into flame at a very low temperature, and does not necessarily require to be in contact with actual flame before igniting. Any article of wearing apparel of this substance should be considered as an element of danger. Cleanliness and tidiness are essential. Many fires are due to the litter about the floors of workrooms, untidy store-rooms, packing materials, rubbish in cupboards, coal-cellars, &c., all of which are ready for the carelessly thrown or dropped lighted match. Firearms. The generic term 'firearm'includes Cannon, Rifles, Guns, Revolvers (q.v.), and other weapons in which an explosive is used as an agent for the propulsion of projectiles. Their early history is inseparable from that of Gunpowder (q.v.), and most improvements in firearms have coincided with some development of gunpowder or the discovery of fresh explosive agents. The earliest firearms were probably merely cases for burning highly inflammable mixtures; then something akin to gunpowder was used to propel other less combustible portions of the filling from the case; and still later the mixture was fired simply as the propellant of a stone or weapon. The knowledge of gunpowder and firearms may be presumed to have extended in a westerly direction through the Arabs, who used them in the 8th century under the name of 'manjaniks,' and introduced them into Spain in the 13th century. Seville was defended in 1247 by cannon throwing stones, a cannon in the castle of Coucy is marked in Arabic figures as having been made in 1258, firearms were used in the defence of Melilla (1259) and at the siege of Sidgil-Messa (1273), and a firemouth' was made at Amberg in 1301. The English are said to have used firearms at D'Eu in 1310, but the first mention of them in a contemporary record occurs in an indenture of 1338 of the equipment of the king's ships of ij canons de ferr... un handgone... barell de gonpouder.' A little later such words as 'gonness,'gunnis,' and 'bombardes 'appear in records; whilst Chaucer (1373) mentions gonne,' and Barbour (1375) that 'crakys of wer' had been used at Werewater in 1327. In Europe the early firearms range in size from the small cannon as used at Crécy (1346) and Rouen (1388) to siege weapons of great size, as that sent to Orleans (1428). Cannon were cast at Augsburg in 1378, but in England not until about 1535. In the 15th century many German towns possessed big guns, and the reputation of these weapons sufficed to protect cities from ordinary assault. Mahommed II. procured a gigantic gun to besiege Constantinople. Whilst cannon might be used for sieges and defending fortified strong. holds, their general use in battle was regarded as ignoble, and as weapons they were counted of little worth. The English conquered France with the longbow in the 14th century, and early in the 15th were driven out by firearms. Different countries had different names for these early firearms-in Italy bombardo,' in France quenon,' in Germany 'buchsen,' in the Netherlands vogheleer,' in England 'crackeys' or 'engynnes' of war; but it was not until the 15th century that firearms were classified and named accordingly. Bombards were short, capacious vessels, from which stone balls were shot with small charges to a short distance and at considerable elevation; they were essentially the parents of the present bombs or mortars. The cannon (canna, ‘a reed'), on the other hand, were, for some time at least, of extremely small bore, scarcely larger than muskets of the 18th century; they discharged leaden bullets, and would have probably been used as hand-weapons but for their cumbrous and heavy workmanship, which necessitated small carriages. Arms of this description are doubtless those referred to as having been brought by Richard II. to the siege of St Malo, to the number of 400 pieces, where they are said to have kept up an incessant fire day and night on the town without success. a Fig. 1. a (from the Chroniques de St Denis), 14th century; b, bombard of the 15th century (from Froissart); c, cannon of the 15th century (from Les Vigiles de Charles VII.). All these early firearms were usually loaded to the muzzle, and fired at an extreme angle. Charles V. classed mortars separately, mounted cannon upon carriages, added trunnions, and effected other improvements in his artillery, which consisted of cannon; great, bastard, and small culverins; falcons and falconets. The classification of firearms led to the development of various types to be used for specific purposes, and an invention which effected a great improvement to one type was useless or inapplicable to another. Cannon of 120 tons and pocket-pistols of 4 ounces, although they have a common origin, have not a common history. Cannon were of wrought iron, built up |