in brackish or even in fresh water conditions. Research has shown that the Eurypterida, the Xiphosura (the only living representative of which is Limulus, the king-crab), and the Scorpionida are intimately related. Of these orders the Eurypterida is the most primitive, but all have probably descended from a common ancestor.

Eurystheus. See HERCULES. Eusden, LAWRENCE. See LAUREATE. Eusebius of Cæsarea, the father of ecclesias. tical history, was born probably in Palestine about 264 A.D. He took the surname of Pamphili from his friend Pamphilus, Bishop of Cæsarea, whom he faithfully attended for the two years (307–309) in which he suffered imprisonment during the persecution of Diocletian. He then went to Tyre, and afterwards to Egypt, where he was himself thrown into prison on account of his religion. He became Bishop of Caesarea about 313, took a prominent part in the Council of Nice, and died in 340. Eusebius was the head of the semi-Arian or moderate party in the Council of Nice. That party was averse to discussing the nature of the Trinity, and would have preferred the language of Scripture to that of theology in speaking about the Godhead. Eusebius held that the promise of everlasting life was to him that believeth on the only-begotten Son, not to him that knows how He is begotten of the Father. He was very reluctant to accept the term homoousios, devised by Athanasius to describe the equality of the Son with the Father, and retained the kindliest feelings towards Arius after the views of the latter were condemned (see ARIUS). His moderation and other excellent qualities procured him the favour of Constantine, who declared that he was fit to be the bishop of almost the whole world. Eusebius has the reputation of being the most learned Father of the Church, after Origen and Jerome. His Chronicon, a history of the world down to 328 A.D., preserved in Latin by Jerome (ed. Fotheringham, 1905, 1923), in Armenian, and in a Syriac epitome, is valuable as containing extracts from many ancient writers whose works are no longer extant. His Præparatio Evangelica, a collection of such statements in old heathen authors as were fitted to make the mind regard the evidences of Christianity in a favourable light, also contains specimens of writings that no longer exist; its complement is the Demonstratio Evangelica, in twenty books, ten of which are extant, intended to convince the Jews of the truth of Christianity from the evidence of their own Scriptures. His most important work, however, is the Ecclesiastical History, in ten books. This relates the principal occurrences which took place in the Christian church till the year 324, and contains the results of his studies in numerous libraries, and even in the imperial archives, the Emperor Constantine having ordered, at Eusebius' request, an examination of all documents relative to the history of martyrs.

One drawback of the work is that Eusebius, on principle, withholds all account of the wickedness and dissensions of Christians, inasmuch as he did not consider such stories for the edifica

tion of the church (see CHURCH HISTORY). Besides the foregoing works may be mentioned his De Martyribus Palestina, the treatises against Hierocles and Marcellus, the Theophania (discovered in 1839), and a panegyrical Life of Constantine. An edition of all Eusebius' works (in Greek) was begun in 1902 by the Berlin Academy. Eusebius of Emesa was born at Edessa, and studied under Eusebius of Cæsarea, and at Alexandria and Antioch. Averse to all theological controversies, he declined the bishopric of Alexandria, vacant by the deposition of Athanasius. He was afterwards, however, appointed Bishop of Emesa, in

Syria, but was twice driven away by his flock, whọ accused him of sorcery on account of his astronomical studies. He died at Antioch about 360. The homilies extant under his name are probably spurious. Eusebius of Nicomedia, Patriarch of Constantinople, related to the Emperor Julian by the mother's side, was appointed Bishop of Beryta (Beyrout) in Syria, and afterwards of Nicomedia. He appeared as the defender of Arius at the Council of Nice, and afterwards placed himself at the head of the Arian party. He baptised the Emperor Constantine in 337, became Patriarch of Constantinople in 339, and died in 342. His enemies are our only sources of information as regards his character and opinions; yet, making the ordinary allowance for partisanship, there would seem to be sufficient reason for concluding that Eusebius was cunning imperious and violent when he had power in his and double-tongued when occasion required, and hands. Athanasius considered him not the disciple,

but rather the teacher of Arius. See ARIUS. Euskarian. See BASQUES.

Eustachio, BARTOLOMMEO, an Italian anatomist, who was physician-in-ordinary to the popes, and professor of Medicine in Rome, where he died in 1574. His name is indissolubly associated with anatomical science through his discoveries of the tube in the auditory apparatus (see EAR) and the rudimentary valve at the entrance of the inferior vena cava in the Heart (q.v.), which are called after him. These and other discoveries are recorded in his Opuscula Anatomica (Venice, 1564); his Tabula Anatomica were edited by Lancisi in 1714. Eustathius, a celebrated Greek commentator on Homer and the geographer Dionysius, was born at Constantinople. He was at first a monk, then a deacon and teacher of rhetoric in his native city he was Archbishop of Thessalonica from 1160, and of Myra from 1174, and died at an advanced age some time posterior to 1185. Eustathius was profoundly versed in the ancient classic authors, and a man of prodigious acquirements; and the value of his quotations is heightened by the consideration that most of the works from which he extracts are no longer extant. His most important work is his commentary on Homer (1st ed. Rome, 1542-50), a rich mine of knowledge. Of a similar character is his commentary on Dionysius, first printed by Robert Stephens (Paris, 1547). Of his commentary on Pindar, only the Proæmium has come down to us, a part of his theological and historical treatises, letters, &c. was published by Tafel in 1832.

Eutaw Springs, a small affluent of the Santee River, in South Carolina, near which the last serious battle in the American war of independence was fought, 8th September 1781. The Americans, under Greene, drove the British from their first position, and on their retreat during the night took many prisoners. The British claimed a victory because they held their position unmolested during

the afternoon.

Euter'pe (i.e. she who delights'), one of the nine Muses (q.v.). She was the muse of lyric poetry, and is represented in ancient works of art with a flute in her hand.

Euterpe, a genus of Palms (q.v.). E. oleracea and E. edulis, closely related species called Palmeto or Cabbage-palm, are cultivated in Brazil (Para, &c.), both for the cabbage (the stem then serving for palisades), and for the sake of the fruit, which See ASSAI. yields the basis of a refreshing drink.

Euthana'sia (Gr.), an easy death, or a painless method of putting to death. The use of narcotics or other means for shortening life in disease has never become a subject of discussion in modern civilised countries, but it is often a very practical

question how far such means are admissible for soothing the last hours of life, when the approach of death does not itself dull the consciousness and the sensibility to pain.

Eutin, Weber's birthplace, near Lübeck. Eutropius, a Latin historian, concerning whom we only know that he filled the office of secretary to the Emperor Constantine, fought against the Persians under Julian, and died probably about 370 A.D. His Breviarum Historia Romana, giving a short narrative of Roman history from the foundation of the city to the time of the Emperor Valens (364 A.D.), is written in an extremely simple style, and appears to have been originally intended for the use of schools. It became very popular as the taste for original investigation declined, and is either copied or followed by the early monkish annalists; it was twice translated into Greek, and was continued by others down to the 9th century. The History existed in three distinct forms at the revival of letters: the genuine work of Eutropius in ten books; the expanded editions of Paulus Diaconus and others; and a complete but largely interpolated copy contained in the Historia Miscella. The editio princeps, printed at Rome in 1471, was from the impure text of Paul.

His

Eutyches, an archimandrite at Constantinople, from whom the Eutychian controversy took its name. His christological views were an exaggera tion of those of Cyril of Alexandria. He held that after the incarnation of Christ everything human in him had become merged in his divine essence, and that Christ therefore had but one nature. personal enemies Domnus of Antioch and Eusebius of Dorylæum denounced him to Flavian, Archbishop of Constantinople, and at a synod held there in 448 A.D. he was condemned as a Valentinian and Apollinarian heretic. An oecumenical council was, through the influence at court of Dioscurus, Cyril's successor at Alexandria, called to Ephesus for a renewed investigation of the matter in dispute. Leo, Bishop of Rome, at the critical moment reversed the policy of the Roman see (his predecessor Celestine had favoured Cyril), and wrote to Flavian his famous epistle, in which he set forth authoritatively the doctrine of the two natures and one person. The council met at Ephesus in August 449, under the presidency of Dioscurus, and, under fear of the fists of his fanatical monks, decided everything exactly as he wished. Eutyches was restored, and Flavian, Eusebius of Dorylæum, Theodoret, and Domnus of Antioch were deposed. On the death of Theodosius II. the government passed into the hands of his sister Pulcheria and her husband Marcian (28th July 450). The fourth œcumenical council met at Chalcedon (q.v.), 8th October 451, and, though the greater number of the five or six hundred bishops shared the views of Dioscurus, the imperial authority insured the acceptance of the formula of Leo, and the resolutions passed in 449 by the 'Robber Council' (latrocinium Ephesinum) the name given it by Leo-were annulled, as having been extorted by fear. Eutyches, who had previously been a second time excommunicated by Anatolius, Patriarch of Constantinople, was removed from the neighbourhood of the capital by Marcian before the meeting of the council. Afterwards, on the advice of Leo, he was transported to some remote place, but his subsequent history is unknown. The Eutychian

sect was from 452 put down by penal laws.

For the later history of the opponents of the decrees of Chalcedon, see GREEK CHURCH.

Euxine. See BLACK SEA. Evagrius, surnamed SCHOLASTICUS, a church historian, was born at Epiphania in Syria in 536.

An advocate by profession, he filled more than one administrative office under the Roman emperors. His Ecclesiastical History, covering the period from 431 to 594, forms a continuation of that of Eusebius. Although marred by the credulity of its age, it is on the whole fairly trustworthy.

Evander, son of Hermes by an Arcadian nymph, called in Roman traditions Carmenta or Tiburtis. About sixty years before the Trojan war he is said to have led a Pelasgian colony from Pallantium, in Arcadia, to Italy, and to have landed on the banks of the Tiber, and near the foot of the Palatine Hill. Here he built a town, naming it Pallantium after the one in Arcadia. At a later period it was incorporated with Rome, and is falsely affirmed to have originated the names Palatinus and Palatium. He did much to introduce the habits of social life among his neighbours; he prescribed for them milder laws, and taught them, among other arts, those of music and writing. To him is also ascribed the introduction of the worship of the Lycæan Pan, with that of Demeter, Poseidon, and other deities. Virgil represents him as being still alive when Eneas arrived in Latium after the sack of Troy, and as having sent him aid under his son Pallas, who fell by the hand of Turnus. Evander was worshipped both at Pallantium, in Arcadia, and at Rome.

Evangelical (lit., according to the gospel,' Gr. euangelion), a designation originally claimed by all Protestants, on the ground that their tenets were derived solely from the Evangel (in the widest sense)-i.e. the Bible, but in later times more particularly attached to the school that insists especially on the total depravity of unregenerate human nature, the necessity of conversion, the justification of the sinner by faith alone, the free offer of the gospel to all, and the plenary inspiration and exclusive authority of the Bible-views largely held by the Presbyterians of Scotland, the Nonconformists in England, and the corresponding churches in America and the British colonies. The adherents of this view within the Anglican communion are (with others) called the Low Church.' In Germany it is the special designation of the United Church, as distinguished from the old Lutheran and Reformed churches, but the title has been assumed by the pietistic party within the Protestant churches, on the ground of their superior orthodoxy and absolute faith in Scripture. See CHURCH HISTORY, and ENGLAND (CHURCH OF); also G. R. Balleine, History of the Evangelical Party (1908); G. W. E. Russell, Short History of the Evangelical Movement (1915); S. Baring Gould, The Evangelical Revival (1920); and Liberal Evangelicanism, by members of the Church of England (1923).

Evangelical Alliance, an association of evangelical Christians belonging to various churches and countries, which, in the words of the circular issued by members of different churches in Scotland, 5th August 1845, and originating the movement for its formation, seeks to associate and concentrate the strength of an enlightened Proand Puseyism, and to promote the interests of a testantism against the encroachments of Popery Liverpool, October 1-3 of that year, the scope of scriptural Christianity.' At a meeting held at the association was extended to the means to be 1846 (19th August-2d September) the first general used for counteracting religious indifference. conference was held in London under the presidency of Sir Culling Eardley, and was attended by 921 members from all parts of the world, representing as many as fifty different denominations. association was instituted a free union, not of churches or sects, but of individual Christians,

In

The

ture causes condensation of some of the steam, and this lowers the vapour-pressure so far as to allow of free evaporation at the reduced temperature. At any given temperature evaporation ceases when a certain pressure of the vapour is arrived at, or, more correctly, a state of equilibrium is reached in which condensation balances evaporation. Condensation occurs at all pressures; but, if the proper pressure corresponding to the temperature is not reached, evaporation exceeds condensation; while, if the vapour-pressure is too great, condensation exceeds evaporation. The presence of another gas or vapour, such as ordinary air, has no effect upon the final value of the pressure which is attained; but the time taken to reach this final pressure does depend very greatly upon the presence of another gas. The time becomes greater as the amount of gas present increases. This state of equilibrium is disturbed at once by any variation of vapour-pressure or of temperature. A vapour is said to be saturated when it is in equilibrium in contact with its liquid.

A considerable amount of heat is absorbed in the process of evaporation. The amount depends upon the nature of the liquid, and also upon the temperature of evaporation. Regnault gives for total heat' of steam the formula 6065 + 0.305t, in which t represents the temperature in degrees Centigrade. This means that a pound of saturated water-vapour at 0° C. gives out 606-5 units of heat when it condenses to water at 0° C., while a pound at 100° C. would give out 6065 +30 5-i.e. 637 units in changing to water at 0° C. The heat given out by a pound of saturated steam at any temperature when it condenses to water at the same temperature is called the latent heat of the steam at that temperature. The term is not a good one. It has reference to the fact that the heat which is required to evaporate a substance without change of temperature disappears so far as ordinary thermometric methods of determining its presence are concerned. If we take into account the variation of the specific heat of steam with temperature, Regnault's measurements of the total heat show that at 0° C. the latent heat is 605 5 units, at 100° C. it is 536-5 units, and at 200° C. it is 464 3 units. It thus decreases very rapidly with rise of temperature. It vanishes at the Critical Temperature (q.v.). The following is the latent heat of vaporisation of a few liquids at a pressure of one atmosphere: water, 536 0; alcohol, 2024; ether, 90·5; bromine, 456. It is evident from these figures that the latent heat of vaporisation of water is relatively large. Were it not for this fact we might have rapid condensation of moisture in the atmosphere in consequence of a very small fall of temperature, and in this way destructive floods might be caused.

Practical use is frequently made of the latent heat of evaporation. Thus, in order to keep water cool it should be stored in vessels of porous earthenware. Some of the water passes through the pores, and evaporates at the outer surface. The latent heat necessary for this is drawn largely from the rest of the water, which is thus kept cool. It is even possible, as was first done by Sir John Leslie, to freeze water by this process. He put some water contained in a shallow earthenware vessel inside the receiver of an air-pump along with a dish of strong sulphuric acid. When the air was exhausted, rapid evaporation resulted; but the vapour was absorbed by the acid as quickly as it was formed, and thus the evaporation was kept up continuously, so that the remaining water was rapidly cooled down to the freezing-point.

The same principle is used in the formation of solid carbonic acid and the like. A jet of liquid is allowed to escape from a strong vessel containing

it. The outer parts of the jet evaporate, and in consequence the inner parts are solidified. Faraday froze mercury in a white-hot vessel by placing it in a little capsule which rested upon a mixture of solid carbonic acid and ether in the spheroidal state. Evarts, WILLIAM MAXWELL, American lawyer and statesman, was born in Boston, 6th February 1818, graduated at Yale, and was admitted in 1841 to the New York bar, where he afterwards built up a notable practice, receiving in some cases $25,000 or $50,000 for an opinion. He was chief counsel for President Johnson in the impeachment trial in 1868, and filled the office of United States attorney general to the end of Johnson's administration. He was United States counsel before the Alabama tribunal in 1872, and senior counsel for Henry Ward Beecher in 1875. In 1877-81 he was secretary of state, and in 1885-91 sat in the United States senate. He died 28th February 1901. Eve. See ADAM AND EVE.

Evection, a lunar inequality resulting from the combined effect of the irregularity of the motion of the perigee, and alternate increase and decrease of the eccentricity of the moon's orbit. See MOON.

Evelyn, JOHN, was born of wealthy parentage at Wotton, near Dorking, in Surrey, 31st October 1620. He was brought up by his maternal grandmother at Lewes (1625-37), then entered Balliol College, Oxford, having already been admitted at the Middle Temple, where, without a degree, he took up residence in 1640-the year of his father's death. Having witnessed Strafford's trial and execution, he resolved to absent himself from this ill face of things at home,' and so travelled for three months in Holland and Flanders. Back in London, studying a little, but dauncing and fooling more,' in November 1642 he joined the king's army, only to leave it in three days' time, lest both himself and his brothers should be expos'd to ruine, without any advantage to his majestie;' and the Covenant being pressed on him, he travelled for four years in France, Italy, and Switzerland. At Paris in 1647 he married the ambassador's daughter, Mary Browne (1635-1709); and, returning for good to England in 1652, settled at Sayes Court, Deptford, the home he did so much to beautify. A thorough, if prudent royalist, he was much at court after the Restoration; acted on several public committees; during 1685-87 was one of the commissioners of the privy seal, during 1695-1703 treasurer of Greenwich Hospital; and from the first was a prominent member of the Royal Society. In 1694 he removed to his brother's at Wotton, and let Sayes Court to Admiral Benbow, who sublet it to Peter the Great (a right nasty' inmate). In 1699 he succeeded his brother; and, vigorous in intellect to the very last, he died at Wotton, 27th February 1706.

'Almost perfect' is Mr Wheatley's estimate of Evelyn, who was indeed a right worthy gentleman, as active and intelligent as he was honest and Godfearing, yet neither a Sage nor a Hero. His pen was a busy one, and dealt with a multitude of subjects-'architecture, painting, engraving, numismatics, history, politics, morals, education, agriculture, gardening, and commerce.' Of all his thirty-five works the chief are Sculptura, or the History and Art of Chalcography and Engraving on Copper (1662); Sylva, or a Discourse of Foresttrees (1664); and his delightful Diary (first published in 1818). It is to the last that Evelyn owes his present celebrity. Written by one who had accustomed himself to habits of close observation, it covers a period of more than seventy years—and these the most memorable in English history. It is, indeed, of inestimable value; Scott said that he had never seen a mine so rich.' See the Life by