Other varieties are composed of botryoidal or irregularly-shaped concretionary masses. Most limestones contain some magnesium carbonate, but it is only when the percentage of this salt is considerable that they are called magnesian limestones or dolomites. Magnesian limestone is often used as a building-stone; and it is also burned and made into mortar, but the lime obtained from it remains much longer caustic than lime from common limestone, and is considered of less value for agricultural purposes. In some districts, however, this lime is preferred to purer limes for application to hill-pastures.-Dolomite is named after the geologist Déodat Guy de Dolomieu (1750-1801), who was born at Dolomieu in Dauphiné.

Dolomite Mountains. The distinctive peculiarities of dolomite mountain-scenery, with its jagged outlines and isolated peaks, may be seen on the grandest scale in the south-east of Tyrol and in the Carinthian Alp masses. When the Dolomites par excellence are spoken of, it is the Dolomite Mountains of this region that are meant. See books by Gilbert (1862), Miss Tuckett (1870), Amelia B. Edwards (1870), Sinigaglia (1896), and S. H. Hamer (1910), and monograph by Mrs Ogilvie-Gordon (Edinburgh Geol. Soc. 1910).

Dolphin, a name applied to various members of the Cetacean family Delphinidæ, but especially to the species of the genus Delphinus. This genus is large and heterogeneous, and is split up by some naturalists. The snout is more or less elongated and pointed; the teeth are very numerous, uniform, close-set, and sharp; the fore-limbs are narrow and pointed; there is usually a conspicuous dorsal fin. Like other toothed Cetaceans, the dolphins have a somewhat unsymmetrical skull with many peculiarities, and a single crescentic blow-hole (nostril) on the top of the head. They occur in all seas, and sometimes in rivers, such as the Amazon. None exceed 10 feet in length. They feed principally on fish, but some do not disdain lower animals, such as molluscs, crustaceans, medusa. In habit they are active, and usually occur in gregarious 'schools.'

The Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis) occurs in the Mediterranean and North Atlantic, and is probably identical with forms from the North Pacific and Australia distinguished as separate

Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis). species. It is usually not more than 6 to 8 feet in length, of a gray or greenish-black colour above, and white below. The moderately long snout is separated by a transverse pad from the slightly arched forehead. The jaws bear on each side twentyfive to fifty small, conical, sharp teeth, curved slightly backwards. The crescent-shaped tail is keeled above and below. The dolphin feeds chiefly on fishes, which it pursues with graceful gambolings. One young one is born at a time, and tended

with much affection. The animals have a peculiar lowing cry. Their agile evolutions are much observed and admired by voyagers. The flesh is sometimes eaten by sailors. Like other dolphins, it is often called a porpoise,' and the French give it the names of Bec d'Oie (goose-beak) or Oie de Mer (goose of the sea). In ancient times the dolphins were sacred to Apollo, and invested with numerous kindly and marvellous attributes. They drew the car of Amphitrite, and carried Arion upon their willing backs. Its image has been often used as a symbol, from the 'shield of Ulysses' to that of the heir-apparent or Dauphin (q.v.) of France. The anchor and dolphin, the printer's device of Aldo Manuzio, with the motto, Festina lente,' was adopted by him, at Erasmus' suggestion, from a silver coin of Vespasian I. The flesh of the dolphin was formerly esteemed for food. The name has been curiously transferred to the little Coryphenes (q.v.); and it is these scomberoids that are meant when reference is made to the 'dying dolphin's changing hues.'

A rarer species off British coasts is the much larger and heavier Tursio (D. tursio), the nesarnak of the Greenlanders. In the North Atlantic, D. albirostris and D. leucopleurus also occur. There is a pure white dolphin (D. sinensis) in the Chinese seas, and a South Sea form (D. peronii) without the usual dorsal fin.

In the same family as the dolphin are many well-known forms: the Narwhal (Monoceros), the Beluga (Delphinapterus), the Porpoise (Phocana), the Grampus (Orca, &c.), the Caaing Whale (Globicephalus), &c. See these articles.

Dolphin, BLACK (Aphis fabe). See APHIDES and BEAN.

Domboc (book of dooms or sentences), the code of laws attributed to King Alfred, contains few if any orig nal laws, but restores, renovates, and improves those already in existence. A peculiarly Christian character is strongly impressed on the code, which begins with extracts from the Bible, "The Lord spake all these words, saying, I am the Lord thy God.' Then follow the ten commandments, the part of the Mosaic law relating to criminal offences, and passages from the New Testament. It was ratified by the Witan. Thorpe gives it in his Diplomatarium Anglicanum ævi Saxonici (1865).

Dombrowski, JOHN HENRY (1755-1818), a distinguished Polish general, was born near Cracow, and, after serving under the Elector of Saxony, returned to take part in the Polish campaigns against Russia and Prussia in 1792-94. Next entering the French service, he organised a Polish Legion at Milan, and in the campaigns which followed played a distinguished part. After the fall of Napoleon he returned to Poland, and was appointed a general of cavalry and Polish senator.

Domdaniel, a magicians' meeting-place in a cave under the sea, adopted by Southey (Thalaba) from the French continuation of the Arabian Nights, and often alluded to by Carlyle.

Dome (Ital. duomo). Since the time of the Renaissance this term is commonly applied to the external part of the spherical or polygonal roof, of which the cupola (cupo, or cup) is the internal part. In Italian usage, however, it has a wider signification than even the first, being used to denote the cathedral or chief church of a town, the house (domus) par excellence, or house of God; and in Germany, dom or domkirche is a cathedral. In tracing the historical origin of the dome, we are usually in the habit of regarding it as originating with the architecture of the Eastern empire, because it was at Constantinople and in the Byzantine provinces that its use in ecclesiastical

structures was principally adopted. But it was the Romans who developed the dome, as well as all the other applications of the semicircular arch. Of their success in applying it to large buildings, we have abundant proof in the ancient domes still to be seen in Rome and its neighbourhood. The dome of the Pantheon is still probably the most magnificent dome in existence, and others of smaller size are to be seen in the temples of Bacchus, Vesta, Romulus, Hercules, &c. From Rome it went to Constantinople, and from the same source, also, according to Fergusson, came the few insignificant attempts at domes in the Western empire. The external form of the dome of the church of St Sophia at Constantinople, which became the typical Christian structure of the kind, will be seen in the illustration appended to BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE (see also ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE, and the illustration of the Taj Mahal at AGRA). The dome of San Vitale, at Ravenna (q.v.), is said to be still more ancient than that of St Sophia, and is a very remarkable structure of the same class. On the church of St Mark, at Venice, there are no less than five domes, the centre one, as is usual in Eastern structures, being much larger than the others. The interior of these domes is covered with Mosaic (q.v.). So far from being peculiar to the few churches we have mentioned, domes occur in those of almost every town along the western shore of the Adriatic, and form, in fact, the chief architectural feature of that side of Italy. From St Mark's the dome was introduced in the 11th century into Périgueux in the south of France, and thus influenced the architecture of a considerable part of that country. The construction of domes in modern times was revived in Rome, by the building of that of Our Lady of Loretto in 1507. But the three most celebrated modern domes are those of St Peter's (q.v.) at Rome, of St Paul's in London, and of the Pantheon in Paris. The following are the dimensions of some of the most important existing domes :

In modern times, domes have been constructed with iron of still larger dimensions. Thus that of the Great Exhibition in Vienna was 360 feet in width, and that of the Albert Memorial Hall in London, which is oval, measures 219 by 185 feet in diameter. For a class of ancient dome-roofed structures, see BEEHIVE HOUSES.

Domenichi'no, or DOMENICO ZAMPIERI, a celebrated painter of the Bolognese school, was born at Bologna in 1581. He began his studies under Denis Calvaert, and completed them under the Caracci. During the whole of his career, Domenichino had much to suffer from the jealousy of rivals, who are not free from the suspicion of having caused his death by poison (1641). Though his artistic fame has greatly diminished during recent years, it must be admitted that his works are distinguished by correctness of design, that the heads of his figures in particular are expressive and forcible, and that his draperies are rich and varied in arrangement. The masterpiece of Domenichino, the Communion of St Jerome,' 1614 (an easel-picture in the Vatican), though suggested by Agostino Caracci's rendering of the subject, is an accomplished and powerful production. His Diana and her Nymphs,' Guardian Angel,' 'St John,' and 'St Sebastian,'

also rank among his finer productions, and the 'Cure of the Demoniac Boy,' at Grotta Ferrata, is one of the most admired of his frescoes. Out of Italy, the museum of the Louvre possesses the largest number of Domenichino's works.

Domesday Book, or DooмSDAY BOOK, one of the oldest and most valuable records of England, contains the results of a statistical survey of that country made by William the Conqueror in 108586. The Old English name, Dómes Dag, 'day of judgment,' has obvious reference to the supreme authority of the book in doom or judgment on the matters contained in it. It was also anciently known as the Liber de Wintonia, or Book of Winchester; the Rotulus Wintonia, or Roll of Winchester; the Liber Regis, or King's Book; the Scriptura Thesauri Regis, or Record of the King's Treasury (where it was long kept, together with the king's seal, under three locks and keys); also the Liber Censualis Angliæ, or Rate-book of England; and the Liber Judiciarius, or Book of Judg.

ment.

The way in which the survey was made will be best described in the words of the contemporary writer in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. At midwinter in 1085, when the king was at Gloucester, 'he had a great consultation, and spoke very deeply with his witan [i.e. great council or parliament] concerning the land, how it was held, and what were its tenantry. He then sent his men all over England, into every shire, and caused them to ascertain how many hundred hides of land it contained, and what lands the king had in it, what cattle there were in the several counties, and how much revenue he ought to get yearly from each. He also caused them write down how much land belonged to his archbishops, bishops, abbots, and earls, what property every inhabitant of all England possessed in land or in cattle, and how much money this was worth. So strictly did he cause the survey to be made, that there was not a single hide, nor a yardland of ground, nor-it is shameful to say what he thought no shame to do-was there an ox, or a cow, or a pig passed by, that was not set down in the accounts; all these writings were brought to him.'

The survey was made by commissioners called the king's justiciaries, who had the help of the chief men of every shire. By a sworn assize or jury of the sheriffs, lords of manors, presbyters of churches, reeves (i.e. grieves or overseers) of hundreds, bailiffs, and six villeins (i.e. servile tenants) of every village, they made inquest as to the name of the place; who held it in the time of King Edward (1041-66); who was its present possessor; how many hides there were in the manor; how many ploughgates in demesne (i.e. reserved in the lord's own hand); how many homagers or vassals; how many villeins; how many cottars; how many serfs; what freemen; how many tenants in socage (i.e. tenants who rendered services of husbandry); how much wood; how much meadow and pasture; what mills and fish-ponds; how much had been added or taken away; what was the gross value in Edward's time; what the present value; and how much each freeman or socman has or had. They were also to state the value of the land (1) as held in Edward's days; (2) as it had been given by William; (3) as it stood at the time of this survey; and (4) if its value could now be raised.

The returns thus gathered in the several shires, and their hundreds and other subdivisions, were arranged and digested in the record which is now called the Great or Exchequer Domesday. The enumeration of the cattle and swine, which so moved the indignation of the Anglo-Saxon chronicler, though regularly made, was in some cases omitted from the record, because of its ever-fluctu

ating quantity. By this valuable census there was provided not only exact information of the land and its inhabitants, but also a trustworthy register of appeal for litigious proprietors, a reliable guide for military service, and a practical basis for regulat. ing taxation. The taxes were levied according to the divisions of the country given in the Domesday Book, until 1522, when a new survey, popularly called the New Domesday Book, was made.

This great English record was published at the national cost in 1783, in two folio volumes, printed with types cast for the purpose, so as to represent the contractions of the original manuscript; it was ten years in passing through the press. In 1811-16 two supplementary volumes were published, one containing an excellent general introduction, by Sir Henry Ellis of the British Museum, with indices to the places and persons mentioned in the work; the other containing four other records of the same nature: (1) The Exon or Exeter Domesday, being a transcript of the Exchequer Domesday for the counties of Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall; (2) the Inquisitio Eliensis, a transcript of the survey of the lands of the monastery of Ely, in the counties of Cambridge, Hertford, Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Hunting don; (3) the Winton Domesday, containing two surveys of the city of Winchester, one made between 1107 and 1128, the other in 1148; and (4) the Boldon Book, a survey of the posesssions of the see of Durham, made in 1183. This fourth record is especially valuable, as partially supplying a deficiency in the Domesday survey, which did not extend to the counties of Durham, Northumberland, Westmorland, and Cumberland, either, it would seem, because they had been lately laid waste by the Conqueror, or because his dominion was not fully established in them. A new and better edition of the Boldon Book was issued in

Domesday Book in translation, county by county, with introductions and maps. In 1872 government ordered a general return of owners of lands, to be prepared by the Local Government Board. This modern Domesday Book' was published in 1874-76.

Of books on Domesday there are not a few-amongst them Maitland's Domesday and Beyond (1897); Birch's Domesday Book (1887), a succinct and popular account, with a copious bibliography; Léchaudé d'Anisy, Recherches sur le Domesday (1842); Domesday Studies (188891); the Rev. W. R. Eyton's notes on several sections (Dorset, Somerset, Stafford, 4 vols. 1877-81, &c.); Freeman's Norman Conquest of England (vol. v. 1876); Boroughs (1904), and Domesday Inquest (1906). Round's Feudal England (1895); Ballard's Domesday

Domestic Architecture. The variety of requirements to be fulfilled by the architecture of the house, whether as regards the climate, habits, or employments of different countries, is very great, and the designs and arrangements must therefore throughout the world's history have been infinitely varied. But the construction is generally much less substantial than that of temples and public buildings, and the remains of ancient houses are in consequence comparatively scarce. There are considerable remains, however, of Egyptian and Cretan dwellings (see CRETE), and some idea of those of the Etruscans may be obtained from the arrangement of their tombs. Greek and Roman houses were generally only one story in height, and contained an open atrium with small chambers around it. Beyond this was the peristyle or private department, surrounded with a colonnade, and opening on a garden. In connection with the peristyle were dining-rooms and family apartments. The preservation of the houses of Herculaneum and Pompeii brings before us with great vividness all the domestic arrangements of the classic period.

The Roman dispositions were followed during a great part of the became

in parco regis.

по

1852 by the Surtees Society, which, in 1857, printed Bishop Hatfield's Survey, another record of the possessions of the see of Durham, compiled between 1345 and 1381. A new and enlarged edition of Sir Henry Ellis's General Introduction to Domesday Book was published in 1833, in two vols. 8vo. See also Stubbs's Select Charters, and Freeman's Norman Conquest (vol. v. 1876). In 1861-63 a fac-simile copy was published by the Ordnance Survey, by photozincography; and the Victoria History of the Counties of England has gone on publishing the

|

modified about the 11th century.

Thus the peristyle was imitated in the cloister of the medieval monastery, and the Roman 'villa' or country-house became the model of early castles of

mo

southern Gaul. In the villa the

the villa rustica, containing the

large outer courtyard was called

granaries, stables, &c., while an inner court formed the villa urbana, or residence of the proprietor. The castles were on the same plan, the courts being surrounded with a ditch and palisaded mound, and the owner's house being a wooden redoubt on the top of an artificial mound in the inner inclosure.

During the middle ages and up to the 17th century, the greater part of the houses of the people, including those in the towns, were constructed with wood, the corbelled-out and overhanging upper floors of which are amongst the most picturesque features of medieval architecture both in England and on the Continent. The Normans were the first to introduce stone and mortar construction into castle-building in the 11th century. The wellknown Norman keeps were the residences of the nobility in Normandy and England till the 13th century. There are still, however, remains of smaller manors in England dating from that period. These consisted of a two-story plain block, the ground-floor being vaulted, and the upper floor,

which contained the living-rooms, entering by a separate outside stair. In the following centuries additions were made to the accommodation to suit the enlarged requirements of the times, until the buildings came finally to surround a courtyard and form a quadrangle. Most of the great castles and mansions of the 15th and 16th centuries were erected on this plan, and those built in the time of Queen Elizabeth were often on a great scale, and contained nearly all the accommodation required at the present day. Smaller mansions and houses were on various plans, and in town-houses the interior court, surrounded with projecting balconies or galleries, was common.

Under the Renaissance, town-houses in streets lost their distinctive qualities, being all designed so as to form as it were one flank of an extensive palace or single edifice. This monotonous arrangement is now being gradually departed from, and each house is beginning to be designed, as it should be, independently.

The domestic architecture of modern times has this peculiarity, that it extends its influence so as to include all classes of dwellings, even the humblest; and the houses of farm-servants and town artisans now receive as much care in their design, in order to render them comfortable and sanitary abodes, as the palaces and mansions of the wealthier classes.

See the articles BUILDING, CASTLE, GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE, QUEEN ANNE STYLE, and other articles cited at ARCHITECTURE in this work; also Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture; Viollet le Duc, Dictionnaire de l'Architecture, Histoire d'une Maison, &c.; John Henry Parker, Some Account of Domestic Architecture in England; T. Hudson Turner, Domestic Architecture of the Middle Ages; D. MacGibbon and T. Ross, Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland. Domestication, the modification of animals by deliberate human interference with their food and surroundings, with the work or functions they perform, but especially with their breeding. The influence of man on animals extends, however, far beyond those usually regarded as domesticated, and it is not possible to draw a perfectly hard and fast boundary line. Man has exterminated some animals-e.g. birds, and propagated others-e.g. fishes; he has made many become rare, shy, and cunning, while others (e.g. crickets) find shelter in his dwellings; he has kept some captive, like the fish in the pond; tamed others individually for his service, like falcons and cheetahs; he has preserved some artificially from their enemies, because of their rarity, and others because of their utility, but without in any of these cases much modifying them. None of these are in the strict sense domesticated. It is only when a distinct breed has been produced by human interference, in most cases deliberately by artificial selection, that we justified in calling the result domestication. Strictly domesticated animals' correspond to strictly cultivated plants; in both cases the organisms have been modified, more or less fixedly, from their natural or wild state, by changes in food and environment, function and breeding.

are

Domestication began long before the dawn of history (see AGRICULTURE, ANTHROPOLOGY, DOG, STONE AGE). The domestic animals are discussed under separate articles; but a list of representative forms may be given here. Among lower animals, Silk-moths (see SILK) and hive Bees (q.v.) have been for long controlled, and to a limited extent modified. Among fishes, Goldfish (q.v.) may certainly be regarded as domesticated for decorative purposes. Birds include many illustrations of domestication-pigeons, fowls, ducks, geese, peacocks, turkeys, guinea fowls, canary-birds, &c. Among mammals, dogs and cats, horses and asses,

DOMESTIC ECONOMY

cattle, sheep and goats, camels, llamas, reindeer, pigs and rabbits, &c., have been domesticated, and have given rise to many different breeds. The complete list is not a long one, though it will probably be increased. To admit of domestication, animals must generally be social and docile in their habits, and must be capable of retaining fertility under changed conditions.

The process of domestication, as far as deliberate control is concerned, is for the most part equivalent to selective breeding. Forms with useful varieties are isolated from the mass, and allowed to breed together, the most desirable results are again selected for breeding, and so on, till a domesticated breed of the same animal is established (see BREED). Different breeds differ from natural species in being usually mutually fertile. In other words, while two domestic races may be externally more different than are two nearly related species in nature, the reproductive elements in the first case cannot differ as they must do in the second. Thus crossing is usually successful between domestic breeds, only rarely between adjacent natural species. When we pass beyond selective breeding to inquire into the conditions of variation, a much more difficult problem is raised. We cannot do more than refer to the probably inherent variability of the germ-cells, to the oscillations in their nutrition which probably provoke changes, to deeply saturating environmental and functional influences which may serve as variational stimuli to the germ-plasm, and to the opportunities for new permutations and combinations that are afforded by the intricate changes that go on in connection with maturation and fertilisation. Modern work has made it clear that in many cases man simply assists in the 'unpacking' of the extremely complex inheritance of the wild type. What look like very novel products are sometimes the result of the dropping out of certain factors in the old or the result of rearrangement. What is called reversion of domesticated breeds is often at least a process of 'repacking' when factors that have been analysed apart come together again.

The results of domestication are very varied. Sometimes the changes induced and cultivated have been comparatively slight, in other cases they have amounted to the evolution of new species. Superficial alterations of colour and skin, hair, and feathers; deeper changes in the less plastic skeletal, muscular, alimentary, and other systems; increased fertility on the one hand, sterility on the other; alteration in mental and emotional characters; the perfecting of a racial characteristic in one case, its loss in another; general progress in some forms, utilitarian degeneration or extraordinary abnormality in others, are abundantly illustrated in Darwin's classic work on variation under domestication. The constant tendency to Atavism (q.v.) or reversion; the danger of carrying selection of a given character too far (see BREED); and the relations to Heredity (q.v.) and Evolution (q.v.) are discussed elsewhere.

See ACCLIMATISATION, CULTIVATED PLANTS, VARIATION; Darwin, Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868); Victor Hehn, Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere (new ed. 1902); N. S. Shaler, Domesticated Animals (1896); Keller, Naturgeschichte der Haustiere (1905).

Domestic Economy is a tautological but convenient expression. Oikonomia, the Greek word from which economy is directly derived, means simply household management. But the reference to the household having gradually been lost, the art of managing domestic affairs in the best and thriftiest manner was, as Domestic Economy, distinguished from Political Economy. As a subject of education in schools, the term is made to cover many matters treated separately in this work