or catulus), is a larger species, 3 to 4 feet in length, of a reddish-gray colour, with large, round, brown spots. The eggs are laid late in the year. The flesh is too coarse to be edible. The skin of both spotted dog-fishes is studded with tubercles of dentine capped with enamel, and when prepared is used as rubskin' for polishing. (3) The Black-mouthed Dog-fish (Pristiurus melanostomus) measures a little over 2 feet, and is of a brownish-yellow colour above, and paler below. The dark spots are large, oblong, and disposed in two rows. The snout is longer, and there is a row of small spines on each side of the upper margin of the tail. (4) The Picked Dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris), belonging to a different family (Spinacidae), is more abundant off British coasts than any of the others. It measures about 3 feet in length, and is a voracious, prolific, hardy animal. It is not oviparous, and is said to produce young almost daily for eight or nine months a year. Its skin is not so rough as that of the spotted dog-fishes. The colour is slatygray or reddish-brown above, and whitish beneath. The two dorsal fins are each provided with a strong spine, which the fish uses with great accuracy as weapons. It gets a variety of names, such as bony dog, hoe, &c., and is much and justly hated by the fishermen for the damage it does to nets and lines, and for the voracity with which it attacks the shoals of herring and other food fishes. The names dog,' 'hound,' &c. are characteristic of all the set, but are particularly applicable to Acanthias. As many as 20,000 have been caught at a time, and their consequent destructiveness can be readily imagined. The young are born alive, two at a time, but in very rapid succession for prolonged periods. The flesh, though coarse, is sometimes eaten; and the eggs are said to be appreciated. The livers yield oil. To numerous related genera of wide distribution-e.g. Centrophorus, Spinax, Scymnus, the title dog-fish might also be applied. See CARTILAGINOUS FISHES, SHARK.

·

Dogger (Dutch dogger-boot, 'codfish-boat'), a vessel something like a galliot or a ketch, used by the Dutch as a fishing-boat in the German Ocean.

Doggerbank, an extensive flat sandbank in the North Sea, between England and Denmark,

about 100 miles off the Yorkshire coast. It is about 170 miles long by 65 broad, with an average depth of from 8 to 16 fathoms. Its fisheries are valuable (see FISHERIES). The bank saw in 1781 an indecisive fight between the Dutch and English fleets. The incident' caused by the attack on Hull fishing-boats off the Doggerbank by the unfortunate Russian fleet on its way to Japanese waters in October 1904 was brought to an end by a Commission in February 1905. For the battle of 1915, see TACtics, War (Great).

Doggett, THOMAS, a capable English actor who died in 1721, but is chiefly kept in remembrance as the founder of a prize- Doggett's Coat and Badge,' still annually competed for by watermen at a sculling-match on the Thames on the 1st August. The original bequest, made in 1716 in honour of the accession of George I., has been supplemented from other quarters. See a book by Cook and Nickalls (1908).

Dog-grass. See COUCH-GRASS.

Dogma. There is the utmost diversity of opinion among theologians as to the exact meaning of the term 'dogma' and the relation between dogma and doctrine. The majority of writers seem to regard doctrine as a simpler form of dogma-a belief which has not yet been finally adopted and authenticated as a fundamental article of faith. In other words, doctrine is dogma in the making. Writers, moreover, are not agreed as to what it is that lifts

doctrine into dogma. Many hold that a dogma is a doctrine which has received the sanction of some church council or ecclesiastical court, or which has been accepted by some Christian community as a test of membership. Others maintain that it is a doctrine which has been expounded in philosophical or metaphysical terms before its acceptance by some duly constituted authority. Harnack, for instance, says the distinguishing element in dogma is the result of the intrusion of Greek ideas into the Christian Church, and McTaggart asserts that some metaphysical idea is involved in every dogma. In contrast to these theories Dr Forsyth has recently developed a quite different view. He maintains that dogma represents the fundamental principles. -the basic truths-of Christianity stated in their simplest form, and that doctrine is always an explication and elaboration of dogma.

These different interpretations of the term may be easily explained from its history. (1) The term ‘dogma' is a Greek word which originally meant. 'that which has been approved or decided.' In medical circles it was used to denote the scientific: method of treatment as opposed to quackery and empiricism. In philosophical circles-among the Stoics, for instance-it was used to describe the fundamental axiomatic principles which form the data of all true thinking. In the legal sphere it was applied to provisions and enactments which had duly received the sanction of the court or legislative assembly. It occurs in the last sense several times. in the New Testament, e.g. of the decisions of the Council of Jerusalem (Acts, xvi. 4), of the enactments of the Jewish law (Col. ii. 14; Eph. ii. 15), of the decrees of emperors (Luke, ii. 1; Acts, xvii. 7). There is no instance in the New Testament of the word being used to denote Christian beliefs or doctrines, since the passages already cited in Colossiansand Ephesians cannot possibly bear that meaning.

(2) Different meanings were assigned to the word at different stages in the development of Christian theology. What was a dogma, for instance, in the 1st and 2nd centuries, was not a dogma in the 4th and 5th, and the character of dogma was altogether revolutionised by the Reformation. We may briefly indicate the different stages as follows:

identify with the period 100-300 A.D., the term (a) In the first stage, which we may roughly dogma was undoubtedly used to denote the universally admitted principles and truths which formed the basis of Christianity. 'Take pains to be established in the dogmas of the Lord and his Apostles,' writes Ignatius to the Magnesians, and he is not thinking of any theological doctrine, but rather of the ethical principles and rules of conduct which Jesus laid down for the guidance of his followers.

The earliest dogmas were therefore ethical precepts and laws of conduct, and simple statements of Christian belief. As time went on, however, in view of Gnostic and other heretical movement, it became necessary to formulate the Christian position. The first attempt at creedmaking is found in the outline of belief, which was drawn up at Rome probably about 140 A.D., and which afterwards formed the basis of the Apostles" Creed.

(b) It was in the second period (from 300 to 700) that the great change came over the conception of dogma. The Arian and the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries compelled the Church to define its belief upon the points in question. In the search for these definitions the Church was bound to go beyond the statements of the New Testament, and adopt philosophical terminology. The decisions which were reached by the cecumenical councils of Nicæa and Chalcedon were subsequently regarded as tests of orthodoxy, and from this point onward dogma came to signify

the theological interpretation of the Christian facts rather than the facts themselves. The authority upon which dogma rested was at this stage the decision of the ecumenical council, and it could be claimed that each dogma had received the sanction of the whole Church.

(3) The third period (700-1500) is marked by the cleavage between the eastern and western divisions of Christendom, which resulted nominally from a difference of opinion on the doctrine of the Procession of the Holy Spirit. Henceforth the Church spoke with two voices, and it was obviously impossible to establish any new dogma which had the authority of a united Christendom behind it.

(4) The Reformation resulted in still further divisions in the western Church, and a radical separation between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism on many points of doctrine, as may be seen from a comparison between the Creed of the Council of Trent and the Augsburg Confession. After the Reformation it became more impossible than ever to secure the sanction of the whole Church for any dogma. If this consent is a necessary condition, we are bound to agree with Harnack that the history of dogma ends at the Reformation. As a matter of fact, if we press the condition at all absolutely, no new dogma was possible after the separation of the eastern and western churches. Henceforward we find a large number of different confessions of faith, which we may regard as embodying the dogmas of different sections of the Church. Sometimes these dogmas were expressed in the form of articles of belief, e.g. the Thirtynine Articles of the Anglican Church-sometimes in books which were regarded as authoritative by particular churches. The Roman Catholic position was expounded, for instance, in Bellarmine's Dispu tationes, the Lutheran in Melanchthon's Loci Communes, the Reformed in Calvin's Institutes, the Methodist in Wesley's Journal and Sermons. It should be stated that all these churches accept the authority of the creeds which were drawn up by the undivided Church in the 4th and 5th centuries. They differ, however, on many other dogmas, e.g. predestination, the doctrine of grace, the interpretation of the sacraments, &c.

See CREED, and the Histories of doctrine by Harnack, Hagenbach, Shedd, G. P. Fisher, Thomasius; McTaggart, Some Dogmas of Religion (1906); Kaftan, Glaube und Dogma (1889); Dorner, System of Christian Doctrine; W. N. Clarke, Outline of Christian Theology; W. Adams Browne, Christian Theology in Outline; and P. T. Forsyth, Theology in Church and State (1915). Dogberry. See DOGWOOD. Dogrose. See ROSE.

Dogs. See ANDIRON.

Dogs, ISLE OF, a district of London, metropolitan borough of Poplar, formed by a sudden bend in the Thames opposite Greenwich. It contains the West India and Millwall docks. Royal kennels are said to have been formerly situated here, but this, and the derivation from dogs' as a corruption of 'docks,' are equally unsatisfactory. Dogskin, used for Gloves (q.v.), may be the skin of the dog, or sheepskin specially prepared to resemble it.

Dog's Mercury. See MERCURY.

Dog's Parsley. See FOOL'S PARSLEY. Dog's-tail Grass (Cynosurus), a small genus of meadow grasses, of which C. cristatus is esteemed for pastures and lawns. See GRASSES, PASTURE. Dog-star. See SIRIUS.

Dog's-tongue. See HOUND'S TONGUE.
Dog's-tooth Grass. See CYNODON.

Dog-tooth, in Architecture, an ornament or moulding used from late Norman to early Decorated. See TOOTH-ORNAMENT.

Dog-tooth Spar. See CALCITE.

Dog-tooth Violet (Erythronium dens-canis). See ERYTHRONIUM.

Dog-whelk. See WHELK.

Dogwood, or DOGBERRY, the name usually given to some of the trees and shrubs of the genus Cornus (see CORNEL, CORNACEE). The Common Dogwood of Europe (C. sanguinea) is a shrub of

Common Dogwood (Cornus sanguinea):
a, flower.

remarkable beauty in autumn from the deep redness of its foliage. The wood makes the very best charcoal for gunpowder. It is very hard, and is made into skewers, cogs for wheels, &c., and in former times it was in request for making arrows. The small bitter fruit yields as much as one-third of its weight of an oil resembling that of olive. The wood of Rhamnus frangula, the berry-bearing alder, is also used by gunpowder makers, and called by them dogwood.-The Dogwood of North America (C. florida) is a very ornamental little tree with whitish flowers, surrounded by large white bracts, which appear before the leaves in early spring, and scarlet berries in winter. The wood is white and fine grained, and suitable for inlaying, and the bark, like that of some allied species, is a useful febrifuge.-Jamaica Dogwood is Piscidia erythrina, a papilionaceous timber-tree; the cortex of the root is powerfully narcotic, used for stupefying fish or deadening the pain of toothache. See also LEPTOSPERMUM, SUMACH.

Dohnanyi, ERNST VON, composer and pianist, was born at Pressburg, 27th July 1877, studied at the Hungarian Academy of Music at Budapest, and for a short time with Eugen d'Albert. From 1897 he made tours in Europe and America, proving himself a pianist of very high accomplishment. Later he gave himself more to composition. His works, which are of real value, include chambermusic, symphonies, pianoforte pieces, and opera.

Dohrn, ANTON (1840-1909), zoologist, was born at Stettin, studied at Königsberg, Bonn, Jena, and Berlin, lectured for a time on Zoology at Jena, and in 1870 founded the great zoological station at Naples. As an embryologist, he devoted himself mainly to the development of insects and

crustaceans; and, besides reports, he published works on the origin of the vertebrates.

Doiran, a shallow circular lake of Macedonia, in Greece, bordering on Yugoslavia, drains to the Vardar. The town of Doiran stands on its south side. Doit, a small copper coin current, though illegally, in England in the sixteenth century. It was a Dutch coin (duit), in value equal to the eighth of an English penny, or half a farthing.

Dol, an antique walled town in the French department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 10 miles SE. of St Malo by rail. Its former cathedral is a striking granite building of the 13th century. To the north is the isolated Mont Dol (213 feet). Pop. 4500.

Dolabella, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, Cicero's profligate son-in-law, was born about 70 B.C., and in 49 had to seek a refuge from his creditors in the camp of Cæsar. In the following year he obtained the tribuneship, and at once brought forward a bill, cancelling all debts, which led to bitter and bloody struggles in Rome. He accompanied Cæsar to Africa and Spain, but on his leader's death promptly usurped the consular insignia, approved of the murder, and made a great display of republican sentiments, which he professed until Antony gave him the province of Syria. At Smyrna he murdered C. Trebonius, the proconsul, in February 43, and proceeded to wring money and troops from the towns of Asia with a recklessness that speedily brought about his outlawry. Within the year, Laodicea, in which he had shut himself up, was taken by Cassius, and Dolabella, to escape his enemies, ordered one of his own soldiers to kill him, 43 B.C.

Dol'ce, an Italian term in music, meaning softly and with tenderness.

Dolci, CARLO or CARLINO, a celebrated painter of the Florentine school, was born at Florence in 1616. He received his first instructions in art from Jacopo Vignali, a pupil of Roselli, and a remarkably skilful teacher. After an uneventful life spent entirely in his native city, Dolci died January 17, 1686. His works, which consist chiefly of madonnas and saints, exhibit the character attributed to him. The faces are full of a pleasing and tender softness, which, however, is often carried so far as to rob them of all character. Dolci's drawing is generally correct, his colouring exquisitely delicate and transparent, and in the nicety and laborious care of his finish he approaches the most characteristic examples of the Dutch school. His works are numerous, and scattered over all Europe. Besides his madonnas, the most famous are his St Cecilia,' 'Christ Blessing the Bread and Wine,' and 'Herodias with the Head of John the Baptist,' in Dresden. Doldrums. See WIND.

Dôle, a town in the French department of Jura, on the Doubs, 29 miles SE. of Dijon by rail. It contains a Gothic cathedral, a college, and a library; and it has quarries, foundries, manufactures of metal wares, and a trade in grain, flour, wine, and cheese. Pop. 16,000. Dôle, the birthplace of Pasteur, is the Dola Sequanorum of the Romans, of whom many traces remain. It was in the 15th-17th centuries a strong and oft-disputed fortress, and the capital of the Franche-Comté (q.v.), with a university and a parliament.

Paris, where his attention was directed to the study which became the chief interest of his life-the writings of Cicero. Proceeding to Italy in 1526, he continued his studies at Padua and Venice, and after six years returned to France, settling in Toulouse. Here Dolet's troubles began. In Italy he had thoroughly imbibed the spirit of humanism, indifference to the teaching of the church. As with its zeal for the study of the classics, and its orator of the French 'nation' in the university of Toulouse, he delivered a harangue which laid the first fagot of the pile that consumed him.' On this occasion he was punished with three days' imprisonment. In 1534 Dolet left Toulouse for Lyons, where, under circumstances that have not heen explained, he killed a person of the name of Compaing. Having received the royal pardon, he still continued to reside in Lyons, always under strong suspicion of heresy. In 1542 he received the royal permission to set up a printing-press, but soon brought himself into trouble on account of the heretical books he published. He was arrested more than once on this charge, but always succeeded in escaping the last penalty of the law. At length, in 1544, he was found guilty of heresy on a charge mainly based on an alleged mistranslation of Plato, in which he was accused of denying the immortality of the soul. After two years' imprisonment, Dolet was burned in the Place Maubert, Paris, 3d August 1546. Dolet's fate has given him an interest and importance he would not otherwise have had. At the same time, by his indefatigable industry as a writer and printer, he did valuable service to the cause of learning in the 16th century. His most important work is his ComC. Christie's Etienne Dolet (1880; new ed. 1889; See Richard mentaries on the Latin Language. French trans. with 'appendix bibliographique,' 1885), and O. Galtier, Estienne Dolet (1908).

Dolgelly, or DOLGELLEY ('dale of hazels'), the capital of Merioneth, North Wales, on the Wnion, 62 miles SW. of Chester by rail. It lies in a rich and picturesque valley, at the foot of Cader Idris, and during the summer months is much frequented by tourists. It has manufactures of coarse woollens and flannels; its Welsh tweed is in great repute. Pop. 2000. Here, in 1404, Owen Glendower held a parliament, and signed a treaty of alliance with Charles VI. of France.

After

Dolgoruky,KATHARINA, PRINCESS, the favourite of the Russian Tsar, Alexander II., who married her in July 1880, after the death of his first wife, Marie, and made her Princess Yurievskaia. She was born at Moscow, 2d November 1847. the Tsar's tragical death she lived abroad, and published at Geneva in 1882, under the pseudonym of Victor Laferté, Alexandre II., Détails inédits sur sa Vie Intime et sa Mort. Her Mémoires (1890) were suppressed by the Russian government. She died at Nice, 15th February 1922.

Dolichocephalic. See SKULL.

Dolichos, a large genus of Leguminosa, suborder Papilionacea, closely allied to Phaseolus (see KIDNEY-BEAN), annual or perennial. Some are cultivated on account of their edible seeds or pods, notably D. Lablab of India and Egypt, D. soya (or Soja hispida), the Soy-bean of China and Japan, and many others. See Soy. The Horse-gram, D. biflorus, is cultivated in India, &c., for horse and cattle food.

Doll, an imitation human figure used as a toy, especially by girls. The word is probably a form of Dorothy. The use of dolls as an assistance to the operations of the young mind dates from the most remote times, and is common in all countries, barbarous as well as civilised,

springing from the early mental process which requires some object to increase the definiteness of the child's ideas. Thus, however roughly made the doll may be, it answers a purpose-setting the child's brain to work, and enabling it, by the association of ideas, to form a mental picture of what it is intended to resemble. With many uncultured tribes the doll is not confined to children. Among the Bechuanas, married women carry a doll with them till they have a child, when it is discarded; a similar practice being observed by Basuto women. In many parts of Africa, whenever twin children are born, one of them is killed; and among the Wanyamwezi, it is usual for the mother to wrap a gourd or calabash in skins, to place it to sleep with, and feed it like the survivor.' Even the European child's love for the doll by no means depends on its artistic excellence; a bit of stick dressed with a few rags is often hugged as heartily Ivory Doll as the finest toy-baby.

Roman

As in the case of most other Toys (q.v.), dolls were at one time imported into Great Britain chiefly from the Netherlands; and hence not an unusual name for a doll was a Flanders baby. These old Flemish or Dutch dolls were made of wood, with neatly formed faces and flashy dresses, the cheaper kinds having slender wooden legs.

See

Dollar, a pleasant town of Clackmannanshire, at the foot of the Ochils, and near the Devon's right bank, 6 miles NE. of Alloa, and 12 ENE. of Stirling. It has bleachfields, but owes its chief well-being to its academy, a domed Grecian edifice (1818-67), which, founded under the will of Captain John M'Nab (1732-1802), a Dollar herdboy and London shipowner, gives higher and secondary education to 800 pupils of both sexes. A mile north of Dollar are the noble ruins of Castle Campbell or Castle Gloom, crowning an almost insulated knoll, amid mountain-rivulets and bosky woods, with King's Seat (2111 feet) rising behind. It belonged to the family of Argyll from 1465 till 1805, in 1556 sheltered John Knox, and in 1645 was burned by Montrose. At Dollar in 877 the Danes won a victory; and in 1538, its 'good vicar,' Thomas Forrest, was burned at Edinburgh for heresy. Pop. (1851) 1079; (1881) 2014; (1921) 1584. Beveridge's Between the Ochils and the Forth (1888). Dollar, the familiar unit of the monetary system of the United States, as well as of Canada and Bolivia, Liberia, and, under the name of peso, of Mexico and Uruguay. The name dollar is a variant of the German thaler and Danish daler. The name arose about the year 1600 in Germany. The Counts of Schlick were then coining ouncepieces from silver obtained in their mines at Joachimsthal (Joachim's Dale) in Bohemia, which gained such high repute as to become standard coins; whence the name Joachims thaler, which finally, for shortness, took the form of thaler-literally, a valley-piece.' The name was soon extended to other coins of similar size-notably to the old Spanish piece of eight,' the peso of eight reals. From 1873 to 1878 the gold dollar was the sole standard of value in the United States. This coin contains 25-8 grains of gold of the United States standard of fineness-namely pure gold; the British standard being pure gold. The gold dollar is thus worth about 4s. 2d. sterling In 1878 the United States government remonetised silver, since which time the United States have

had a double standard. The standard silver dollar contains 412 grains troy of silver, of which is alloy. The silver dollar (like a paper dollar) is exchangeable anywhere in the United States for a gold dollar; although the bullion value of the silver it contains was, prior to 1919, considerably less. It varies, in fact, with the market price of silver. The dollar is divided into 100 cents; there are silver half and quarter dollars, and dimes (ten cents), nickel half-dimes, and copper cents, the coins of least value in the United States currency. The U.S. trade-dollar of 420 grains had ceased to be a legal tender, but till 1883 was specially coined for export to China and other Asiatic regions. It is very nearly equivalent in intrinsic value to the Mexican dollar, so long recognised as the standard of values in the Chinese trade. The British at Hong-kong and the Japanese government coin trade-dollars also. The Canadian dollar is about equivalent in value to that of the United States. Among other coins that are, or may be, called dollars from their approximation in value to the United States standards, are the boliviano of Bolivia (silver, about 72 cents); the peso of Spain (97 cents), of Chile (78 cents), of Cuba (92 cents), of the Central American Republics, and of Colombia (80 cents); the sucré of Ecuador (72 cents); the gourde of Haiti (80 cents); the yen of Japan (gold, one dollar; silver, 80 cents); the dollar of Liberia (worth one American dollar); the Mexican peso (75 cents); and the sol of Peru (80 cents); all of them of silver, except when otherwise stated. The thaler, equalling 3 marks, or 71 cents, till 1875 formed the standard of value of almost all northern struck in 1887) has a value of 4s., and is approxiGermany. The double florin of Great Britain (first mately a dollar. The derivation of the dollar mark ($) has been variously ascribed to (1) a combination of the initials U.S.; (2) a modification of the figure 8, a piece of eight being formerly indicated by the character 8-8; (3) a form of HS., which marked the Roman unit; (4) the contraction of P and S employed in Spanish accounts to indicate peso; (5) a device formerly seen on the reverse of the Spanish dollar, and again, since 1848, on the peso duro, representing the Pillars of Hercules, and round each a scroll displaying the inscription Plus ultra.

Dollart, THE, a gulf of the German Ocean, at the mouth of the river Ems, between Hanover and Holland. It is 8 miles long by 7 broad, and was formed by inundations of the sea (1277-1362), which submerged 50 villages and several towns. Of late years much territory, especially on the flat German coast, has been won back from the sea.

Dolling, ROBERT WILLIAM RADCLYFFE (18531902), destined as 'Father Dolling' to secure love and enormous influence as a social reformer in the slums of Landport and Poplar, was the son of a landlord at Magheralin, in County Down, and was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. He settled in London in 1878, was ordained in 1883, and was closely associated with Father Hanlon, A. H. Mackonochie, and the militant ritualists. In his charges at Southwark, Portsmouth, and Poplar he showed the same magnetic power with reputables and disreputables, the same evangelical fervour combined with advanced ritualism and radical politics, and the same impatience of ecclesiastical authority. See Lives by Osborne (1903) and Clayton (1902).

Döllinger, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ, one of the most scholarly and eminent of recent German Catholic theologians, was born at Bamberg on 28th February 1799. After teaching for three years in the Lyceum at Aschaffenburg, he was appointed (1826) professor of Ecclesiastical History and Law in the university of Munich, a chair which he held,

with the exception of a short interval (1847–49), down to 1871, when he was elected rector of his university. He also represented the same university in the Bavarian chamber from 1845 to 1847, and onwards from 1849, and was elected by a Bavarian constituency to the Frankfort parliament of 1848-49. His life and labours may be conveniently divided into three periods. During the first of these, which extended from 1826 to 1857, he was one of the most energetic defenders of Ultramontanism in Germany, the champion of the independence of the church from the state, and an enemy of Protestantism, formidable not only on account of his energy and indefatigable zeal, but also on account of his learning, his eloquence, and his skill as a writer. The views which he held at this period of his life find expression in his public acts, especially as leader of the Ultramontane party at Frankfort, and in two works, Die Reformation, ihre innere Entwickelung und ihre Wirkungen (Ratisbon, 3 vols. 1846-48); and Luther, eine Skizze (1851). In 1857 Döllinger visited Rome, and what he saw there, together with the outbreak of the Italian war of 1859, produced a change in his opinions, which he first announced publicly in two addresses delivered at Munich in 1861, in which he propounded his belief that the temporal sovereignty of the pope was not essential to the continuance and progress of the Roman Catholic Church. The enunciation of this view brought down upon his head several fierce attacks from the writers of the Ultramontane party, to which he replied in Kirche und Kirchen, Papsttum und Kirchenstaat (1861); and this was followed, two years afterwards, by Vergangenheit und Gegenwart der katholischen Theologie (addressed to a conference of Roman Catholic divines at Munich), and by Die Papstfabeln des Mittelalters. Whilst the Vatican Council was being summoned to deliberate on the dogma of papal infallibility, Döllinger, along with his colleagues, Professors Friedrich and Huber, assailed the new doctrine in the anonymous Janus (1869; 2d ed. as Das Papstthum, 1891). In July 1870 the council proceeded to promulgate the decree of papal infallibility; and in the following March Döllinger published a letter, withholding his submission, alike as a Christian, a theologian, an historical student, and a citizen.'

Excommuni

cated three weeks afterwards, he took a leading part in the summoning of the congress which met at Munich in September, and out of which arose the Old Catholics (q.v.). The year 1872 marks the beginning of the third period in the learned theologian's career. The position he now took up was indicative of a desire to bring about the union of the various Christian churches, a cause which he advocated, not only in a series of lectures (1872), but also by the active part he took in the Old Catholic conference at Bonn (1874-76). He never officiated as a priest of the new communion, though he defended its position. With Reusch he edited Cardinal Bellarmine's autobiography (1887), and a work on moral controversies in the Catholic Church since the 16th century (1888). In 1888 he published academic lectures (Eng. trans. of first series, Studies in European History, 1890), and in 1889 materials for a history of sects. Besides works already named, Döllinger wrote Hippolytus und Kallistus (1853), Heidentum und Judentum (1857), a treatise on Christianity and the Church in the earliest period (1860), and a collection of documents illustrating the history of the Council of Trent. In 1873 he was made president of the Munich Academy. In 1889 his ninetieth birthday was celebrated by the university with great éclat; and he died at Munich, 10th January 1890.

Dollond, JOHN, a distinguished optician, inventor of the achromatic telescope, was descended

from a French refugee family of Dutch extraction, and was born in London, June 10, 1706. Brought up to his father's occupation of silk-weaving, and engaged at the loom all day, he devoted great part of the night to his favourite studies of mathematics, optics, and astronomy; and even made himself acquainted with anatomy, theology, Greek, Latin, French, German, and Italian. In 1752 he joined his eldest son, Peter (1730-1820), who had started as an optician, and devoted himself to the improvement of the dioptric telescope, in which he was encouraged by the most distinguished scientific men of the time. After a series of well-contrived experiments and researches, carried on for several years, he succeeded in constructing lenses that produced images without any coloured fringe (see ACHROMATISM). This was undoubtedly the greatest improvement that the telescope had received since its first invention, though it came out in action for infringement of patent, that in 1733 it had been anticipated by Chester More Hall, who had not, however, made his invention public. The Memoir (published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1758) in which he gave an account of his investigations was rewarded by the council of the Royal Society with the Copley Medal. In 1761 Dollond was elected an F.R.S.; he died 30th November of the same year. His two sons continued to carry on the business with great reputation and success. See Kelly's privately printed Life, reproduced in the Philosophical Magazine (1804).

In

Dolmen (from the Celtic words daul, 'a table,' and maen, а archæology to the megalithic framework of the stone') is a modern term applied in chambers of chambered cairns, which often survive the removal of the covering mounds of stones and earth for agricultural or other utilitarian purposes, or which may never have been England, such constructions, consisting of three or completely enveloped in such a covering. more stone props supporting a massive roof stone, were formerly styled Cromlechs (q.v.), but this use lish dolmen is that known as Kits Coty House of the term is now obsolete. The best-known Eng(V.), near Aylesford, in Kent. The term dolmen is almost universally employed on the Continent to designate not only the denuded megaliths of a inclusive of the covering mound or cairn. It is sepulchral chamber, but the whole construction, thus synonymous with the descriptive appellation of chambered Cairn (q. v.), and may be taken as a generic name for such sepulchral constructions of the stone age. In France there are thousands of more or less complete dolmens in the wider sense of the term, many of these in Brittany.

It

Dolomite, or BITTER SPAR, a mineral consisting of double calcium and magnesium carbonate. The proportions of the two carbonates are very variable, and occasionally the mineral contains a considerable percentage of ferrous carbonate. crystallises in rhombohedral forms, the faces of the crystals being often curved; its lustre is somewhat pearly or vitreous, and its colour usually white, but variously coloured kinds are not uncommon, such as reddish, brown, green, gray, and black. It effervesces feebly with cold acid. The pure crystallised varieties are known as Pearl Spar. Those which contain a notable proportion of ferrous carbonate are called Brown Spar or Ankerite. Besides these, columnar fibrous and granular or saccharoid varieties are known. Magnesian limestone-a rock occurring abundantly in the Permian System (q.v.)-is composed essentially of bitter spar, and hence is often called dolomite. It is usually white, gray, or yellow in colour, and finely crystalline. In some varieties cellular spaces occur which are often lined with crystals of dolomite.