The term Havilah' is used to describe the sandy
desert of North Arabia, which extends from Ophir
to the neighbourhood of Edom. According to
Genesis, Gilion compasseth the whole land of
Cush,' and the term Cush is usually applied to
Ethiopia. From the time of Josephus there has
been an unbroken stream of tradition which iden-
tifies the Gihon with the Nile. There seems to be
less justification for another tradition, also pre-
served by Josephus, which makes the Pishon
equivalent to the Ganges. Those who are anxious
to maintain the Babylonian site of Eden urge
(1) That Cush and Havilah need not be used here
in their later sense. There is evidence to connect
the former name at any rate with Babylonia. (2)
We are dealing with prehistoric times, when the
configuration of the country was different, and the
Persian Gulf extended 80 miles farther inland
than it does to-day. Possibly the Persian Gulf,
which was originally regarded as a river, may be
identified with the Pishon. (3) Possibly there was
a Semitic myth which regarded Babylonia as the
source of all the important rivers of the world.

Other theories as to the locality of Eden: (1) in the extreme north-east, towards the Altai Mountains (Josephus); (2) in Armenia, between the sources of the Euphrates and Tigris (Bunsen, Keil); (3) in Chaldea (Calvin); (4) in the neigh bourhood of Damascus (Le Clerc); (5) in Udyâna, near Kashmir (Renan).

There are similar myths in Babylonian and Indian literature.

between Aleppo and Diarbekir, 78 miles SW. of the latter town. Of its early history we know little, but with the conquest of Persia by the Greeks the history becomes less obscure. Seleucus, in particular, is said to have done much for the improvement of the city. Christianity was introduced into Edessa at an early period. In the reign of Trajan, the city was made tributary to Rome, and in 216 A.D. became a Roman military colony, under the name of Colonia Marcia Edessenorum. During this period, its importance in the history of the Christian church continued to increase. More than 300 monasteries are said to have been included within its walls; it was the seat of Ephraem Syrus (q.v.) and his school, and played an important part in the Arian and other controversies. Here, moreover, the famous portrait of Christ, supposed to have been painted by St Luke, and sent by the Saviour himself, with a letter, to Abgar (q.v.), king of Edessa, was preserved, till it was carried in 944 to Constantinople, and thence to the church of St Bartolommeo in Rome. Edessa was conquered by the Moslems in the seventeenth year of the Hegira, 638 A.D. Christianity declined, and wars at home and abroad during the khalifate destroyed much of its temporal splendour and prosperity. It was long held by the Arab tribes of Hamdân and 'Okeyl. The Byzantine emperors succeeded in recovering Edessa for a time in 1031, but the Seljuk Sultan, Melik Shah, retook it in 1086. There was always a strong Christian element in the popu lation, and it was due to this that the city opened its gates to Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1097, who made it the capital of a Cum-Latin principality and the bulwark of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Under the Frankish princes, Edessa held out valiantly against the Mussulmans, till at length 'Imâd-ed-dîn Zengi, ruler (atabeg) of Mosul, succeeded after a siege of a month, and several unsuccessful assaults, in taking the town and citadel in the year 1144, when the conqueror was so struck with the beauty and magnificence of the city that he withheld his men from sacking it. An attempt, however, of the Christian section of the inhabitants to betray the place to Joscelin in 1147 brought about the ruin of Edessa; the Christians were defeated by Nûr-ed-dîn; the city was laid waste; and all who were not massacred were sold as slaves. In 1182 Saladin added Edessa to his already extensive empire, and it was passed on to his kinsmen. After many vicissitudes, in the course of which Edessa fell successively into the hands of sultans of Egypt, Mongol emperors, Turkomans of the White Sheep, and Persian shahs, the city was finally conquered by the Ottoman Sultan, Selîm I., in 1515, and has ever since formed a portion of the Turkish dominions. It now The large Armenian Christian population has been much contains perhaps 40,000 inhabitants. reduced by massacre; the rest are Turks, Arabians, Kurds, and Jews. Edessa has numerous mosques and bazaars; manufactures of cotton and silk goods, goldsmiths' wares, and morocco leather, and a large trade in corn, wool, horses, &c. Easterns, to whom it is the residence of Abraham, regard it as a sacred city.

Eden, a river rising in the east of Westmorland, in the Pennine Chain. It runs north-northwest through the east of Westmorland and berland, past Appleby and Carlisle, and ends in a fine estuary at the upper part of the Solway Firth, after a course of 65 miles. There is another Eden in Sussex and Kent, a third in Fifeshire, and

a fourth in Berwickshire.

Eden, RICHARD (c. 1521-76), translator and compiler of geographical and other works, born in Herefordshire, studied at Cambridge under Sir Thomas Smith. He was dismissed for heresy from the English treasury of the Prince of Spain.

Eden, WILLIAM. See AUCKLAND. Edenhall, the ancient seat of the Musgraves in Cumberland, 4 miles NE. of Penrith, now a school. On the famous 'Luck of Edenhall,' an old painted glass goblet said to have been snatched from the fairies, the welfare of the house depends. It is supposed to have been a chalice, and its leathern case bears the sacred monogram. Uhland's wellknown ballad, Das Glück von Edenhall, has carried its fame beyond the British Islands.

Edentata (Lat., ' toothless'), a primitive order of placental mammals, probably including at least two distinct orders-(a) the New World Sloths (q.v.), Ant-eaters (q.v.), Armadillos (q.v.), and extinct types like Megatherium (q.v.) and Glypto; donts; (b) the Old World Pangolins (q.v.) and Aard-varks (q.v.). Almost the only general characters that can be given concern the teeth. These are quite absent in ant-eaters, and rudimen tary in pangolins. In the other types they are uniform, usually simple, without roots, with no more than hints of enamel, and never present in

the front of the mouth.

Edessa, earlier known as Aigai, was, till superseded by Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia, and continued long afterwards to be the burial. place of the Macedonian kings. Little remains of the city, whose site is occupied by Vodena (q.v.). Edessa (Arabic Er-Ruha, called by travellers Urfa), a very ancient city, fabled to have been founded by Nimrod, in the north of Mesopotamia,

Edfu (Coptic Atbo, Egypt. Teb, Lat. Apollinopolis Magna), a town of Upper Egypt, is situated on the left bank of the Nile, in 24° 56′ N. lat.. and 32° 53′ E. long. It contains the remains of served monument of its kind in Egypt. It was two temples, the larger of which is the best prefounded by Ptolemy IV Philopator rather more than two centuries before Christ, and added to by his successors down to Ptolemy XIII Dionysus, a period of 170 years. The general plan of the temple resembles that of Dendera (q.v.). Its length is 451 feet, the breadth of its façade is 250 feet. Its

entrance is by a gateway 50 feet high, between two immense truncated pylons, 37 feet wide at the base, and 115 feet high, the whole surface covered with sculptures and inscriptions in low relief. This splendid façade is visible from a great distance, and is one of the most commanding sights in the Nile valley. Passing through this entrance, a court is reached; it is 161 feet long, and 140 feet wide, inclosed by a splendid colonnade of 32 columns of every variety of capital, and surrounded by walls, between which and the pillars there is a stone roof, forming a covered portico. The interior of this

Edmund the Magnificent. After his elder brother's accession to the throne, Edgar in 957 was made ruler over Northumbria and Mercia, and two years later, on his brother Eadwig's death, became king of Wessex in addition. His reign, the policy of which was largely shaped by Dunstan (q.v.), was one of almost unbroken peace and prosperity; the Danes were conciliated, the monastic system was reformed, and the laws were strictly administered. Thus the epoch of Edgar the Peaceful was one which greatly favoured the work of national consolidation, the fusing together of the Danish, Saxon, and Mercian elements existent in the country.

Edgar the Atheling, grandson of Edmund Ironside, was born probably before 1057 in Hungary. His life may be epitomised as a series of abortive attempts. Selected by Edward the Confessor as his prospective heir, he was kept out of the throne by William the Conqueror (1066); having twice engaged in the northern revolts against the Norman, he was twice compelled to take refuge in Scotland, with Malcolm Canmore, who married Edgar's sister Margaret; then, embracing the cause of Robert, Duke of Normandy, against William Rufus, he was driven away (1091) from the duchy to Scotland; then he embarked (1099) in a bootless crusading expedition to the East; and finally was taken prisoner at Tenchebrai (1106) fighting for Duke Robert against his brother Henry I. Almost the only successful achievement of his life seems to have been that of reseating his nephew Edgar on the throne of Scotland (1097), which had been usurped by Donald Bane. His last days were spent in obscurity; the date of his death is

not precisely known.

View of the Temple at Edfu, from the top of the pylon. court was to a great extent filled up with rubbish, and occupied by wretched dwellings, many of which also were built upon the roof of the temple; but and Oxford shires, 14 miles SSE. of Warwick. A Edgehill, a hill-ridge on the border of Warwick these were all cleared away by Mariette in the khediviate of Ismail, and now the effect of the tower, erected in 1760, marks the scene of the first whole is grand and imposing, impressing the mind great battle of the Civil War, which was fought on with the harmony and beauty of the design. From Sunday, 23d October 1642, between 12,000 royalists this court opens a hypostyle hall of 18 columns, the Earl of Essex. It was the intention of Charles, under Charles I. and 10,000 parliamentarians under joined by an intercolumnal screen, through which who had been lying at Shrewsbury, to march upon access is obtained to an inner hall of 12 columns, London; and Essex, who had thrown himself into leading to the sanctuary, where a great monolith Worcester, marched forward to intercept him, and of gray granite was evidently intended to encage entered the Warwickshire village of Kineton on the hawk, the sacred emblem of Hor-Hud, the local Horus (q.v.), to whom the temple was dedi- the evening of the 22d. Next morning, the royalist cated. The sanctuary and surrounding chambers, army was discovered a little in advance, and drawn together with the outer and inner halls, are separ-3 miles to the south-east. The king's forces had up in order of battle on the elevation of Edgehill, ated by an open corridor from the outer wall of the the advantage in numbers and in cavalry, as well temple, and both sides of this passage are covered with elaborate but monotonous reliefs and numeras in position; Essex, however, had the more forous inscriptions which present a sort of encyclo-descend the hill about two o'clock, and Prince midable train of artillery. The royalists began to pædia of ancient Egyptian geography, ritual, and ecclesiastical topography, with calendars of feasts, lists of divinities in the various names and cities, and even a species of church directory, including the names of singers and other temple officials. The smaller temple, erected by Ptolemy Physcon and Lathyrus, consists only of two chambers. Edfu has at present a population of about 20,000. Its manufactures are blue cotton cloths, and earthenware similar to the ancient Egyptian pottery.

Edgar, king of Scotland (1097-1107), born in 1072, son of Malcolm Canmore, fled to England

from Donald Bane (1093). See SCOTLAND.

Edgar, or EADGAR, king of the English from 959 to 975, was born in 944, the younger son of

Rupert, who led the right wing, charged with his cavalry the left wing of the parliamentarians, broke it, and pursued it to Kineton. This was the fatal movement of the day. The right wing of the parliamentarians had charged and recharged with the greatest success, until, after some stubborn fighting around the royal standard, the royalist infantry broke and retreated toward the hill, and Rupert's cavalry were not available. The result was indecisive, the royalist loss being heaviest, but the advantage on the whole was with the king's forces.

Edgewater, a former village of Staten Island, since 1897 has been included in Richmond Borough of New York City.

EDGWARE

but more especially to separate gravel-walks from
cultivated ground. They are sometimes made of
stone, or of deal, of ornamental wire and cast-iron |
work, and very frequently now of terra-cotta tiles
in elegant patterns. Living edgings are, however,
always to be preferred where they can be adopted,
because they are almost invariably most pleasing
and characteristic of gardening. For this purpose
many low-growing evergreen shrubs are used in
Britain, such as dwarf box, Cotoneaster, Pernettya,
Erica, ivy, and latterly some remarkably neat and
pretty dwarf Veronicas from New Zealand. Among
herbaceous plants commonly used for edgings may
be noted double-flowered daisies, thrift or sea-pink,
gentianella, saxifrages, and many others which
when in flower are highly beautiful. The only
drawback in connection with these is that they
require frequent, almost annual renewal. Turf
edgings are sometimes employed for wide flower-
borders.

Edgware, a village of Middlesex, 11 miles NW. of King's Cross station, stretching for about a mile along the highway. In a forge here, where he had taken refuge from the rain, Handel conceived his Harmonious Blacksmith.'

Edicts were issued by all the higher magistrates of Rome, especially by the Prætors (q.v.), and ultimately contributed its most valuable element to Roman Law. For the Edict of Nantes, see HUGUENOTS, NANTES.

Edinburgh, capital of Scotland and county town of Midlothian or the county of Edinburgh, has since 1482 been itself a county of a city. It stands 393 miles NNW. of London by rail, and 46 E. of Glasgow (43 direct distance), in 55° 57′ N. lat. and 3° 11′ W. long. More than most capitals, Edinburgh has concentrated in and around itself a large part of the national history, and is the pride of the country in virtue of beauty of situation, the romantic events that have taken place within its walls, the fame of its citizens in literature, science, and art, and the glamour shed on place and people by the writings of its most faithful son and citizen, Sir Walter Scott, and added to by another native, Robert Louis Stevenson. Edinburgh has been called the Modern Athens' in reference partly to the situation on hills near the sea and to its literary distinction in the 18th century. The town stands on a series of ridges looking down upon the Firth of Forth, and is overlooked by Arthur Seat (q.v.), and by the north-eastern end of the Pentlands (up to 1617 feet), and other hills (see EDINBURGHSHIRE), now within the city boundaries. Of hills within the area of streets the highest are the Castle Rock (437 feet) and the Calton (349). Although the Castle Rock, which for centuries was considered an almost impregnable fortress, must have been a place of refuge and of arms from the earliest times, the city is not conspicuous very early in the history of this part of the country, which in Roman times was unquestionably occupied by a British or Welsh (not Gaelic) people, the Otadini, apparently a branch of the Brigantes. On the removal of the Romans it was no doubt exposed to the incursions of the Picts from the north, and may have been occupied by them. But about 617 it was conquered and held by Edwin, king of Northumbria, was doubtless fortified as an outpost against the northern raiders, took its name from the Anglian king, and for centuries formed an integral part of the great Northumbrian kingdom. It is doubtful if during the Danish troubles in the 10th century Edinburgh was taken possession of by the Scoto-Pictish kings; it did not formally become part of the northern kingdom till after the battle of Carham in 1018, when the Northumbrian kingdom had been destroyed by the Danes and Cnut was king in the south.

Lothian was ceded by the Northumbrian earls to the king of Alba, but remained then and since Anglian in speech and population. The Gaelic name Dun-Edin is merely a Gaelic translation of Edwinesburg or Edwinesburch, the name we find in the charters of David I. (1128-47) and the history of Symeon of Durham. The old British name seems to have been Dyn Mynedd or Mynyd Agned; the late tradition that the castle was called Castrum Puellarum, and was a place of safety for Pictish princesses, is a fable. Christianity is believed to have been introduced, as into other parts of Lothian, in the reign of Oswald (634-642); the first church of the oldest Edinburgh parish is said to have been built about the end of the 7th century on the site where St Cuthbert's Church now stands. In the end of the 11th century, its castle figures in the story of St Margaret, queen of Malcolm Canmore, and the little Norman chapel on the summit of the rock, dedicated to her memory, is the oldest building connected with the city. Excavations below it have disclosed remains of earlier buildings. In 1128 David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood, about a mile east of the castle, on the site of a much earlier church, whose foundations have been discovered, and round it grew up the little burgh of the Canongate, which maintained its separate municipality until 1856, when it was incorporated with Edinburgh.

To the east of the castle, where the ground slopes down from the rock in a narrow 'hog's-back' (see the article CRAG AND TAIL, and the cut there), grew up the town of Edinburgh. In 1329 it was made a burgh by Robert the Bruce, by a charter which also granted the town the right of establishing a port at Leith, 2 miles distant. Thus began the vassalage of the port to the capital town, which continued until 1833, when Leith was by Act of Parliament made a burgh, thereafter enjoying independence till it was annexed in 1920 (see LEITH). It was, however, during the 15th century, under the Stewart dynasty, that Edinburgh began to be recognised as the capital, and parliament regularly met here; at first within the great hall of the castle, and afterwards in the City Tolbooth, until in 1631 the Parliament House, which still stands, was erected. James IV. and James V. confirmed its choice as the capital by building a palace within the abbey of Holyrood; and by establishing in it, in 1532, the Court of Session (q.v.) as a supreme court of justice for Scotland. In 1450 the first wall was built; and in 1513, after the defeat at Flodden, an extended wall was erected to include the suburb of the Cowgate, which had meantime arisen in the valley to the south. For two centuries and a half the town remained stationary in size, consisting of two long streets, the High Street (which was continued without the walls by the Canongate) and the Cowgate; while from these branched off numerous narrow lanes, called 'wynds,' which were also lined with houses. The town was defended on the west by the castle; on the north by a morass, called the Nor' Loch;' and on the east and south by the city wall. As the population increased, the houses rose higher and higher, being built of the splendid freestone of the surrounding country, until the town abounded in great 'lands of houses, which, being erected on the steep sides of the 'hog's back,' had entrances from two levels, and rose to ten, twelve, and even fourteen stories in height. This is the historic city; and it entered on the most remarkable period of its history with the birth of Queen Mary. In 1544 it was burned to the ground by the English under Hertford, scarcely a building outside the castle, save St Giles' Kirk, escaping. In 1560 the drama of the Reformation began in Edinburgh, and John Knox became the city minister; in 1561 Queen