square miles, and others are: Athabasca 4,400 square miles; Reindeer Lake, 4,000 square miles; Woolaston and Doobount lakes, each Over 2,000 square miles in extent. These waters have been_little_fished, excepting by Indians, Hudson's Bay Company employees, and the like, but being prolific in whitefish, sturgeon, etc., the development of great commercial fisheries in the near future is assured.

5. The Pacific Interior system from Lakes Labarge and Atlin to Shuswap Lake, and the Kootenay, Arrow and Okanagan lakes near the United States boundary. None of the lakes in this western series are comparable in area to the vast inland seas referred to above; but such waters as Babine Lake (250 or 300 square miles) at the head of the Skeena River, and Stuart Lake, and Quesnelle lakes (respectively 100 and 750 square miles in area) at the head of the Fraser River, have an importance wholly disproportionate to their size, owing to the fact that their creeks and tributary streams are the great spawning resorts of various species of Pacific salmon. Whitefish, lake-trout, Pacific trout of various species, and grayling occur in these waters.

Rivers of Canada.- Fisheries are also conducted upon the rivers, which almost without exception, are abundantly supplied with the most esteemed fishes. Apart from a great stream like the river Saint Lawrence, whose drainage area is estimated to be 367,000 square miles, there are rivers, like the Mackenzie (2,400 miles long); the Great Saskatchewan (1,900 miles); the Churchill and Back rivers (each 1,500 miles); the Fraser (750 miles long and draining 100,000 square miles); the Red River (600 miles), and others like the Peace, Nelson, Albany, Great Whale, Skeena (300 miles); Ottawa (600 miles); Saint John (500 miles); Restigouche, Saguenay, and Miramichi; all of which are great rivers, presenting for the most part unsurpassed scenic grandeur, and affording notable sport and extensive commercial fishing. It would indeed be difficult to parallel the Fraser River, with its incredible multitudes of salmon, while the Restigouche and other famous angling rivers emptying into the Atlantic Ocean have no peers in the annals of sport. "Canada," as Prof. Elwyn said, "is the paradise of the angler."

Minor Fisheries, Oysters, Smelts, etc.The shores of Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia furnish oysters of unequalled flavor and comestible qualities. Owing to over-fishing and inadequate protection the yield has seriously declined from 70,000 or 80,000 barrels per annum to half that quantity, valued at about $140,000 yearly. On the other hand, such an industry as the smelt fishery, mainly carried on through the ice in December, and the early months of the year, has grown from $117,000 in 1881 to $400,000 or $500,000 in value. These dainty fish formerly used as fertilizing material on farm lands, are now shipped, four or five thousand tons per season, in a frozen condition, mainly to the United States markets. The estuaries of the Miramichi, Restigouche and other New Brunswick rivers are the centres of this remarkable fishery.

The sturgeon fishery has witnessed a great development recently, and has much greater possibilities before it. This fish became commercially valuable in Canada, first on the

FISHERIES

Saint John River, N. B., in 1880, when 602,500 pounds were shipped to New York. In four years the catch fell to 126,000 pounds, and in 1895 barely 27,000 pounds were secured; but in Lake of the Woods, and on the Great Lakes, and above all, in the illimitable waters of Manitoba, the Northwest, and British Columbia, the sturgeon fishery has received a great impetus during the last five or six years. In 1902 the yield of sturgeon was valued at $173,315, as compared with $90,000 20 years ago. Canada, in the opinion of some authorities, is now one of the chief producers of "caviare," which formerly brought 10 cents to 15 cents per pound, and now sells in the cleaned, partly prepared condition at 90 cents to $1 per pound. Catfish and similar species, as well as eels and coarse fish generally, formerly little valued, are now in demand, bringing to the shermen from $750,000 to $1,000,000 per annum.

Fishing Bounty.- For the encouragement of the Atlantic deep-sea fisheries a bounty system is carried out, the fund for which ($4,490,882) was provided by the Halifax Award, 1877. The bounties paid annually to vessel owners, vessel-fishermen, and boat-fishermen, amount to about $160,000.

Government Hatcheries.— An important adjunct to the natural reproduction of fish, aided by close seasons, size limits, etc., is the artificial culture of fish under the Dominion commissioner of fisheries. Twenty-two hatcheries are in operation, and four or five are in course of erection. The output of fry in tic and Pacific salmon, lake trout, brook trout, 1903, amounted to 314,511,500, including Atlanwhitefish, pickerel or doré, lobsters, etc. The total number of young fish planted in Canada during the last 30 years is no less than 3,704,546,000. Several of the Provincial Governments (Ontario, New Brunswick, and British Columbia) also aid in fish-culture to a limited extent.

Scientific Stations.- Two scientific biological stations are maintained by the government for the study and solution of fishery problems. The Canadian Marine Station, founded in 1898, can be floated from one part of the coast to another, and the staff have been engaged in the investigations of marine life at St. Andrews, N. B., Canso, N. S., and Malpeque, Prince Edward Island. It publishes, at intervals, a scientific bulletin. The Georgian Bay Station, Lake Huron, confines its work to the fisheries of the inland waters. The staff at both institutions, consists of professors and specialists from the Canadian universities.

Bait Freezers, Guano Works, etc.-In the fall of 1900 the Canadian government inaugurated a system of State-aided bait freezers in order to meet the needs of the fishermen, who have suffered much from irregular supplies of bait. Local fishermen's associations can, under conditions, secure a government grant covering half the cost of construction, and an annual payment of $5 per ton for bait preserved in the State-aided freezers. Twenty-four of these buildings have been built, varying in capacity from 10 tons to 50 tons. Larger freezers, to supply the Canadian "banking" fleets, are included in the scheme, one at Canso, costing $50,000, having a capacity of 2,000 tons. Government fish-dryers

are also at work aiding the fishermen in preparing their products for the market independently of unfavorable weather. The initial drier was erected at Souris, Prince Edward Island. Further the government have imported Scottish experts, and a staff of Highland girls, to cure herring on the most approved methods. The scheme has proved most successful, and the Canadian fishermen receive instruction, and are enabled to improve the quality of cured herring sent into the markets. The incursions of hordes of destructive dog-fish and the injury to the fisheries resulting from the dumping of fishoffal, etc., in the sea, have moved the government to start fish-waste reduction works at various localities on the coast. These works conducted on the most approved methods, purchase dogfish, cod-heads, etc., from the fishermen, and convert them into guano, fish-oil, etc., under qualified government management.

Fishery Cruisers.- The Fisheries Protection fleet of about a dozen vessels, including a number of armed cruisers under trained naval officers, patrol the sea-coast and the Great Lakes. They enforce the fishery laws, and are under the direction of the commander of the Fisheries Protection Service.

Central Administration.- For the administration of fishery affairs, a special government Department of Marine and Fisheries was created at Confederation (1867) under a minister of the crown, and aided by a large staff of officials (inside and outside service) at Ottawa. A deputy minister, a commissioner of fisheries, about 20 inspectors, and numerous lesser officials carry out the duty of regulation which falls to the Federal authorities. The Dominion expenditure on fisheries approaches $600,000 per annum. Up to 1898, the Dominion government exercised sole administration; but by a recent judgment of the Imperial Privy Council (London, June 1898) it was decided that most of the Provinces have "property" in the fisheries, and in them is vested the right of issuing licenses, collecting revenue, and enforcing fishery laws, while it falls to the Dominion to frame regulations, exercise jurisdiction and carry out a general supervision in the interests of the fisheries as a whole.

EDWARD E. PRINCE,

Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries.

40. Canada — Manufactures. Canada has become year by year increasingly important as a manufacturing country. In the vast agricultural wealth, the fish, timber, mineral and other resources, her industries have a sure foundation, while the practically unlimited supply of water-power, supplemented by extensive coal areas, have combined with an increasing home and export trade to give manufacturing a development which has been phenomenal.

The grain produced forms the basis of a large milling industry. Much Canadian wheat is shipped direct to Europe, but in addition nearly 6,000,000 bushels are ground yearly in Canada and exported. In 1903, 1,228,000 barrels of flour, 145,000 barrels of oatmeal, and 11,251 barrels of other meal were exported. Other mills manufacture cereal foods. Co-operative butter factories or creameries have become a most important manufacturing industry among the farmers, the factory method of manufacture having, for trade purposes, entirely superseded the home method. In 1903 Canada exported

229,100,000 pounds of cheese and 34,128,944 pounds of butter. Pork-packing (including bacon, ham, and pork) is an important industry which is rapidly developing. In 1903 the exports of pork aggregated 143,288,402 pounds. Beef and mutton are also the basis of important dressed meat enterprises. The raw terial of flour and grist mills, butter and cheese factories, meat-packing and slaughtering establishments is almost wholly of the products of agriculture. Their aggregate value in 1901 was $71,173,295.

ma

Exports of canned meat, fruit, and vegetables have increased rapidly in value from year to year, totaling in 1903 more than $6,000,000, as compared, for example, with a total of $3,700,000 10 years previous. The tanning industry, the manufacture of boots, shoes, harness, saddlery, and leather goods are all enterprises more or less directly concerned with the products of the farm, which have shown steady and increasing development.

Connected with the fisheries is the fish-canning industry, a most important one, in which alone it is estimated that 80,000 men and a capital of $11,000,000 are employed. The fish are smoked, canned, or pickled for export, or shipped in cold storage to Canadian cities, the United States, and the West Indies. The exports for 1902 of the salmon canning industry on the Pacific coast aggregated over 49,000,000 pounds. Lobster canning is a considerable industry on the Atlantic coast.

Lumbering has always been an important industry in Canada. The total value of lumber exports in 1903 was $36,386,015. Canadian forests are looked upon as a great source of supply of pulp wood, and several mills have in recent years been put in operation for the purpose of converting spruce into pulp wood. The manufacture of furniture, vehicles, matches, and other wood products besides paper, is making rapid progress. The following estimates of the raw material in the several provinces may serve to indicate the basis for future development of this important industry: In 1900 there were in the province of Nova Scotia about 75,000,000 acres of ungranted crown lands covered with forest; in New Brunswick about 12,000 square miles of forest in possession of the crown, of which over 9,000 square miles are under license to lumbermen. In the province of Quebec, standing timber, exclusive of pulp wood and undersized trees, would produce at least 60,000,000,000 feet of lumber. The northern portion of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories is covered with a sub-arctic forest, and the forests of British Columbia probably cover about 1,500,000 acres. Ontario contains the greatest variety of useful trees, and the greatest number of industries depending upon wood of all of the provinces.

Manufacturing based upon the mineral resources of the Dominion has been of a later development than manufacturing in other lines, but promises to become increasingly important. The bituminous coal of Nova Scotia is well adapted to the manufacture of gas and coke. All varieties of iron ore are found in that province, and are being extensively developed. Asbestos is an important mineral in the province of Quebec. Copper, iron, and mica are also extensively produced. Nickel is the most important mineral in Ontario. In 1903 its production was 6,999 tons, valued at $2,499,681. In the prov

ince of Ontario during the same year there were mined 208,154 tons of iron ore, and there were produced 87,400 tons of pig iron and 15,229 tons of steel. The total mineral production of the province for the year amounted to $12,870,931, including the non-metallic minerals, the chief of which were common brick to the value of $15,615,700, petroleum to the value of $1,586,674, and Portland cement to the value of $1,182,979. British Columbia is particularly rich in minerals, the chief of which are gold, silver, copper, and lead. While manufacturing has not developed to any considerable extent in the province of British Columbia, a very great development may be expected. A large amount of capital has been invested at Sydney, N. S., and at Sault Ste. Marie, on Lake Superior in Ontario, in the iron and steel industry. There are also important rolling mills and foundries; and special lines of machinery are largely manufactured in different parts of Canada, especially in the province of Ontario. Among other important industries in the Dominion are cotton and woolen mills, tobacco factories, sugar and petroleum refineries, breweries, and distilleries.

The water-power of Canada is not equaled by that of any other country, and its presence is attracting much capital for manufacturing purposes to the Dominion. Some of the largest industries are being operated by water power. In Sault Ste. Marie the largest pulp mill in Canada and a number of important industries are operated by electricity, developed by the local rapids, 175,000 horse-power having been developed thus far. It is reported that Winnipeg, which is 100 miles west of Rat Portage, with its industries, as well as other places, will be supplied with power from a dam across the Winnipeg River at Rat Portage, with a capacity of about 30,000 horse-power. At Niagara Falls extensive power companies and many large chemical industries have been established, with an aggregate capital of about $20,000,000, the horse-power to be developed at this point to be 424,000. Large electrical works have also been constructed at Lachine Rapids, above Montreal, and at Chambly, on the Richelieu River. These plants supply electricity for the operation of a street railway and for domestic and street lighting in Montreal. The streets of Quebec are lighted and the Quebec street railway operated by electricity developed at Shawinigan Falls on the river Saint Maurice. The Chaudiere at Ottawa, with a fall of about 40 feet at low water, has been used for many years for driving mills, pumping the city water supply, and generating electricity for light and operating the street railway, 8,000 horse-power being developed. Within a radius of 50 miles from Ottawa there is available water-power energy equivalent to 900,000 horse-power. These are only instances. It is estimated that the Saint Lawrence system places 10,000,000 horse-power at the disposal of Canadian industry.

The favorable conditions for skilled workmen in the manufacturing industry in Canada are reflected by the constant demand for labor which has been general for many years, the comparatively high rates of wages paid to workmen, and the reasonable length of the working day. The several trades are partially organized, their members belonging to unions having for the most part international affiliation with the unions in the United States. During 1903

it was estimated that there were between 1,500 and 1,600 local labor organizations in Canada. Unemployment on any noticeable scale has been practically unknown in the manufacturing industries in Canada since the industrial depression in the '70s, and at the rate at which manufacturing development has been proceeding, it is unlikely that the large demand for labor will cease for some time to come. On the other hand, the favorable condition of the labor market to employers is reflected by the comparatively small number of strikes and lockouts arising throughout the year, and the fact that in many industries, notwithstanding that wages have shown a tendency to increase, profits have been such as to attract a rapidly increasing amount of capital. During the three years 1901, 1902, and 1903, there was an average of only 130 strikes a year in all the trades and industries throughout the Dominion, and of this number only one half were connected with manufacturing establishments.

A comparison of the figures given in the returns of the census for the year 1901 (*) and the returns of previous censuses will indicate the great development which has taken place in manufacturing in Canada during recent years, as well as the nature of the chief manu

factures.

It is estimated that in 1891 (†) there were in manufacturing establishments employing five hands or over, in all, 272,033 employees. In 1901 this number had increased to 344,095. The amount paid in yearly wages in 1891 was $79.234,311. In 1901 it had increased to $113,283,146. According to the first Dominion census, which was taken in 1871, there were in that year employed altogether in manufacturing establishments in the Dominion 187,942 persons; the amount paid in wages was $40,851,009. These figures would indicate that the total number of persons employed in manufacturing in Canada has almost doubled during the past 30 years, while the amount paid in wages has nearly trebled in the same time.

Equally interesting by way of comparison are the figures which show the total value of articles manufactured. According to the returns of 1891 the value of the articles manufactured in establishments employing five hands and over was $368,696,723. This amount had increased to $481,053,375 in 1901. Compared with the total value of articles manufactured in 1871, which is estimated at $221,617,773, it will be seen that the total value of articles manufactured has more than doubled in 30 years.

According to the original figures of the census of 1891, in which account was taken of all kinds of manufactures, no matter how few persons were employed, the estimate given of the amount of capital invested in manufactures in Canada is $354,620,750. In the census of 1901, which relates exclusively to establishments employing five hands or over, the estimated capital invested is placed at $446,916,487. In the

*The figures made use of in these comparisons are taken from the tables of the 1901 Census, the compilation of which has just been completed. The figures have not, as yet, been published.

†The figures quoted for 1891 are the figures of the Census of that year as revised for comparison with the 1901 Census, a different basis of calculation having been employed in previous years. The Census of 1901 took account only of establishments employing 5 hands and

over.