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BREDOW-BREEDING

since his time often reprinted. His lyrics are admired for their musical verse and their tender sensibility; but his masterpiece is unquestionably the Jerolimo (Spaansche Brabander Jerolimo'), a comedy based upon a French version of one of Mendoza's plays. Another comedy, Moortje,' is an adaptation from Terence. See Ten Brink, 'Gerbrand Adriaenszoon Brederoo' (1859).

Bredow, Gabriel Gottfried, gä'bri-ěl got'fred bra'do, German historian: b. Berlin, 14 Dec. 1773; d. Breslau, 5 Sept. 1814. He was for a time professor at Eutin, and a colleague of the celebrated Voss; afterward professor at Helmstadt, and still later at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, whence he went to Breslau on the removal of the university to that place. He was distinguished for his patriotism and his literary works. His 'Handbuch der alten Geschichte' (Manual of Ancient History) passed through five editions, the fifth of which appeared in 1825. He was the author of 'Chronik des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Chronicle of the 19th Century); 'Epistolæ Parisienses'; 'Untersuchungen über Geschichte, Geographie, und Chronologie) (Researches in History, Geography, and Chronology); and of the very useful Historische Tabellen (Historical Tables), which were translated into English.

Brée, bra, Matthæus Ignatius van, Belgian painter: b. Antwerp, 1773; d. there, 1839. He chiefly excelled in historical painting, for which he gained a prize in 1797. His characteristics are said to have been originality and vigor of conception and patience in execution, yet he worked with great rapidity, as he presented to Napoleon in a few hours a tableau of the manœuvres of the fleet on the Scheldt before Antwerp. His first work which attracted attention was the 'Death of Cato. Among his principal works are 'Rubens Dictating his Dying Testament'; 'The Tomb of Nero at Rome, with a group of Itinerant Musicians and Lazzaroni; Death of Count Egmont'; Van der Werff Addressing the Famished Populace During the Siege of Leyden in 1576' — the burgomaster is represented as saying, "Take my body and divide it amongst you." Van Brée had the title of painter to the Empress Josephine, and represented many scenes connected with the French occupation of Belgium. He replaced Herreyns as director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, and gained a high reputation by his teaching. He also evinced a capacity to excel in sculpture and lithography.

Breech and Breech-loader. The breech of a gun is that portion of a gun immediately behind the bore, and which in modern smallarms and artillery is removed to enable the process of loading to be effected. The chief advantages of this method, over muzzle-loading, are that it greatly increases the quick-firing capacity of the weapon, and adds to the length of range and accuracy of aim, while affording much facility for cleaning. Though it has only been successfully adopted in quite modern times, the breech-loading principle is nothing new, as some of the earliest cannon were so constructed. The first weapon of this description utilized as a regular military arm was the needle-gun adopted by the Prussian government so long ago as 1841, though its efficacy and superiority for warlike purposes was not demonstrated till the success

ful campaigns of Prussia against Denmark and Austria in 1864 and 1866. Other nations also speedily armed their troops with breech-loading rifles, the French having adopted the Chassepôt breech-loader in 1866, and in Britain the old Enfield rifle having been converted into a breech-loading weapon and supplied to the troops the same year. In 1871 the Snider or converted Enfield began to be superseded by the Martini-Henry rifle, and this again has been superseded in the British army by the LeeMetford magazine rifle. Other European nations have also adopted different forms of breechloading rifles. The principle of breech-loading has also been applied to artillery, the names of Armstrong and Krupp being associated with some of the first modern guns of this type. See ARTILLERY; MUSKET; RIFLE; SMALL ARMS.

Breeches, a garment for the legs, especially, as distinguished from trousers, for covering the upper portions of the legs. In England they were formerly called hose. Breeches or hose were in use even among the ancient Babylonians, and with them were made so as to cover the foot and supply the place of stockings. In Europe we find hose first used among the Gauls, hence the Romans called a part of Gaul breeched Gaul (Gallia braccata). In the 5th century they had become fashionable in Rome. In the time of Queen Elizabeth and James I. the breeches had assumed enormous dimensions, being stuffed out with various materials, as wool, hair, etc. King James' partiality for such breeches is well known, and we find him represented in an old engraving with wide stuffed breeches tapering to the knee, slashed and adorned with lace. In the reign of Charles I. they took the form of short trousers, loose at the knee, and ornamented with ribbons, lace, etc. In the time of William III. the tight knee-breeches came in, and have been supplanted by trousers only in the 19th century.

Breeches Bible, a name given to a Bible printed in 1579; and so called from the reading of Gen. iii. 7: "They sowed figge tree leaves together and made themselves breeches." As a matter of fact this Bible has no more distinctive right to the name than Wyclif's version, in which the same words are also found.

Breeches Buoy. See LIFE SAVING SERVICE. Breeching, a rope used to secure the cannon of a ship of war, and prevent them from recoiling too much in the time of battle. It is of sufficient length to allow the muzzle of the cannon to come within the ship's side to be charged.

Breede, bra'dë, a river in Cape Colony, which rises in the Warm-Bokkeveld, and flows chiefly in a southeasterly direction through the district of Zwellendam, entering the Indian Ocean at St. Sebastian's Bay, about 60 miles northeast of Cape Agulhas, the most southerly point of Africa. It is navigable for vessels drawing not more than 10 feet of water to a distance of 40 miles, and drains a very fertile

district.

Breeding, the process of procreation as applied to any or all classes of organisms. In this article the term is largely used to describe the breeding of domesticated animals. Originally the different variations of types or breeds had their origin in the accident of circumstance

BREEDING

and the natural tendency of all animal life toward variation; but since man began to exercise control, and to appropriate various breeds or types to his own use, reproduction has been almost entirely along the lines of natural and artificial selection. Thus we may very properly limit the definition of breeding as discussed in this article to the art by which domestic breeds are obtained. Probably the best-known as well as the most ancient maxim of "breeding," and one which has been expressed in one form or another by every ancient writer on husbandry and agriculture of which there is any record, is the familiar aphorism that "like produces like." A natural result of this was the practice of breeding from the best type-specimens. There does not seem at first to have been any consistent system of selection, and as the standard of excellence varied with the passing periods there was no real progress in breed-development, as we understand it to-day. About the middle of the 18th century Robert Bakewell, an Englishman, originated a system of breeding live stock based upon the idea that the principle of "like begetting like" went much farther than the general similarity of the offspring to the parents, and extended to the minutest details of the organization. He made a special study of the form and proportions of animals, and formulated a definite standard of excellence representing the form and internal qualities that he desired to obtain. This standard governed his actions when making selections for breeding purposes. He succeeded so far in molding the plastic forms of the cattle upon which he experimented as to arouse the interest of other breeders, with the result that to-day there are many varieties of improved breeds, all of them of remarkable excellence, but each differing from the others in the characteristics that have been bred into them, to adapt them to special purposes or conditions of environment.

Heredity in Breeding.-There is good reason to believe that not only the external characteristics of the parents are reproduced in the offspring, but that internal structure and functional activity, and in fact every peculiarity of the organization of the parents are also transmitted. Innumerable illustrations from every department of organic life confirm this theory, and if further proof be needed, the hereditary transmission or predisposition to disease will supply it. For instance, it sometimes happens that mares affected with such diseases as ringbone, navicular disease, etc., in consequence of which they are unfitted for work but are kept as breeders, have colts in which are combined all the good qualities of the parents, but which at the age of five or six years develop diseases similar to those of the disabled parents. Not only are the hereditary characteristics of conformation, temperament, and disease transmitted, but frequently also, the habits and characteristics which have been developed by special conditions of environment, or because of some particular training they have received from man. Illustrations of this may be found in the tendency of well-bred short-horns to mature early and acquire fat rapidly; and the ability of Jerseys and other dairy breeds to secrete a large supply of milk. With the horse, the English thoroughbred racer and the American trotter furnish the most convincing illustrations of what breeders consider the transmissior of acquired

characters. It is the various breeds of dogs, however, that form the best examples. It is a common experience of the hunter to discover a setter, pointer, or retriever that has never been "shot over before, but which "works" with as much skill and steadiness as the most experienced sporting dog. The transmission of abnormal characteristics of structural conformation is another fruitful source of the variation of types, as for instance the Dorking fowls, whose characteristic of a fifth toe has been inherited, it is claimed, from a five-toed fowl brought to Britain by the Romans. Similar instances of the working of this law may be found in abundance in every branch of organic life. It does not follow, however, that the immediate offspring of a parent marked by some abnormalism will develop the same characteristic; but that it will make its reappearance in some subsequent generation is an indisputable fact. This phenomenon is technically known as "atavism” (q.v.), but it is more generally described as "throwingback," "breeding-back," etc. Instances of characteristics that have been extinct for half a century, but which reappear with all the peculiarities of the original breed are in the experience of every breeder. In brief, an offspring may unite in itself the prominent characteristic of one or both parents, or it may resemble a grandparent, or even a remote ancestor; but it is equally the offspring of all its ancestors and, within its own organization in a latent condition are the characteristics of all preceding generations, any one of which may be duplicated in its own offspring. It is at this point that the "law of co-relation" asserts itself, which Miles in his Stock Breeding' defines as "any peculiarity in the development of one organ or set of organs, usually accompanied by a sponding modification or suppression of organs belonging to some other part of the system." With regard to domestic animals, whose flexibility or plasticity of organization is perhaps greater than other animals, we find that the principal causes of animal variation are climate, food, and habit, and that the distinguishing characteristics of the different breeds have been the result of the modifying influences of the environment to which they have been subjected. Thus the small breeds of sheep and cattle in mountainous countries are in decided contrast to those of the same species obtaining their foodsupply in the lowlands or fertile valleys. Indeed the relation of the size of animals to their food-supply has been commented upon by writers from the earliest times.

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The function of reproduction in the animal organization is also affected by the conditions above mentioned. The procreative ability of many wild species becomes weak or extinct if the animals are subjected to confinement; yet in direct contrast to this we find domesticated varieties more prolific than the wild species for example, tame ducks deposit more eggs than wild ones; and the same fact is true of dogs, swine, rabbits, pigeons, etc. All authorities are agreed that this greater fecundity is due to the better food-supply and the security generally of domestic conditions. It has been observed that throughout the entire animal kingdom the smaller species of animals are more prolific than the larger ones, and certain it is that they breed at an earlier age, at shorter intervals, and have a greater number of young at each birth.

BREEDING

Breeding from close affinities is known as "in-and-in breeding," the best definition of which is that of Randall, Practical Shepherd,' "breeding between relatives, without reference to degree of consanguinity." Possibly no other practice in breeding has been fought over so much as that of "in-and-in" breeding. The opponents of the practice assert that the offspring of closely related parents are born with a predisposition to disease, and that in any event they will suffer from a lack of fecundity. Before going farther into this question, it will be well to state that while high-breeding implies the breeding from animals within the family limits, yet all high-bred animals are not necessarily "in-and-in" bred, although they must be closely bred to a greater or less extent. When a breeder wished to secure a type representing the highest standard of excellence, he has found it necessary to select animals for breeding-stock that possessed the characters he wished to reproduce in the offspring. It followed, therefore, seeing that it is only animals descended from a common ancestor, and having the same hereditary tendencies that possess the desired variations, he was usually compelled to breed together animals that were more or less closely related. No matter how right or how wrong the practice of "in-and-in" breeding may be, it is an indisputable fact that all the successful breeders have practised it more or less in order to retain and fix in their animals the desired tendencies and characters. The most cursory examination of herd-books and breeding-registers will show how closely related all the most valuable animals have been to each other. What may be considered to be the opposite of "in-and-in" breeding, is the practice of pairing together animals belonging to distinct breeds. This is known technically as "cross-breeding." It frequently happens that the offspring of a first-cross between distinct species possess very desirable qualities, but their sterility prevents the formation of a new or intermediate race, so that the cross has to be repeated to secure another such offspring. The mule is the most familiar example of such a cross. Cross-bred cattle while not sterile as is the case with mules, are yet incapable of transmitting their good qualities to their offspring.

The period of gestation in all mammals is determined by causes yet unknown. That it would seem to have some relation to the size of the animal may be gathered from the following examples: Elephant, 20 to 23 months; giraffe, 14 months; dromedary, 12 months; the different varieties of buffalo, from 10 to 12 months; ass, 12 months; mare, II months; cow, 285 days; bear, 6 months; reindeer, 8 months; monkey, 7 months; sheep and goat, 5 months; sow, 4 months; beaver, 4 months; lion, 108 days; dog, fox, and wolf, 62 days; cat, 50 days; rabbits, 30 days; squirrel and rat, 28 days; guinea pig, 21 days. The same rule may be traced in the periods of incubation in birds.

To sum up, the art of breeding consists in the exercise of judgment and skill in the matter of selection. The parents must be chosen in accordance with some well-defined purpose and for the conditions under which they will be placed. High-bred males have been found to impress their own good points upon their offspring, more than do high-bred females. In the opinion of many successful breeders, the dan

gers of "in-and-in" breeding are considerably lessened when a high-bred sire, rather than an inferior animal, is employed. Miles, 'StockBreeding,' lays down the rule that "in the improvement of grades as well as purebred animals, the selection of breeding-stock must go hand in hand with a judicious system of feeding and management, as the artificial characters which are impressed by the male upon his offspring can only be retained through the influence of essentially the same conditions that originally produced them."

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Breeding, Plant. The fundamental principles of plant breeding are simple and may be stated in few words; the practical application of these principles demands the highest and most refined efforts of which the mind of man is capable, and no line of mental effort promises more for the elevation, advancement, prosperity, and happiness of the whole human race. Every plant, animal, and planet occupies its place in the order of nature by the action of two forces the inherent constitutional life force with all its acquired habits, the sum of which is hereditary; and the numerous complicated external forces or environment. To guide the interaction of these two forces, both of which are only different expressions of the one eternal force, is, and must be, the sole object of the breeder, whether of pants or animals. When we look about us on the plants inhabiting the earth with ourselves and watch any species day by day, we are unable to see any change in some of them. During a lifetime, and in some cases perhaps including the full breadth of human history, no remarkable change seems to have occurred. And yet there is not to-day one plant species which has not undergone great and to a certain extent constant change. The life forces of the plant in endeavoring to harmonize and adapt the action of its acquired tendencies to its surroundings may, through many generations, slowly adapt themselves to the necessities of existence; yet these accrued forces may also produce sudden and, to one not acquainted with its past history, most surprising and unaccountable changes of character. The very existence of the higher orders of plants now inhabiting the earth has been secured to them only by their power of adaptation to crossings, for through the variations produced by the combination of numerous tendencies, individuals are produced which are better endowed to meet the prevailing conditions of life. Thus, to nature's persistence in crossing we owe all that earth now produces in man, animals, or plants; and this magnificently stupendous fact may also be safely carried into the domains of chemistry as well, for what is common air and water but nature's earlier efforts in that line, and our nourishing foods but the result of myriad complex chemical affinities of later date.

Natural and artificial crossing and hybridizing are among the principal remote causes of nearly all otherwise perplexing or unaccountable sports and strange modifications, and also of many of the now well-established species. Variations without immediate antecedent crossing occur always and everywhere from a combination of past crossings, and environments for potential adaptations often exist through generations without becoming actual, and when we fully grasp these facts there is nothing mysterious in the sudden appearance of sports; but

BREEDING

still further intelligent crossings produce more immediate results and of great value, not to the plant in its struggle with natural forces, but to man, by conserving and guiding its life forces to supply him with food, clothing and innumerable other luxuries and necessities. Plant life is so common that one rarely stops to think how utterly dependent we are upon the quiet but magnificently powerful work which plants are constantly performing for us. It was once thought that plants varied within the so-called species but very little, and that true species never varied. We have more lately discovered that no two plants are exactly alike, each one having its own individuality, and that new varieties having endowments of priceless value and even distinct new species can be produced by the plant breeder with the same precision that machinery for locomotion and other useful purposes is produced by the mechanic. The evolution and all the variations of plants are simply the means which they employ in adjusting themselves to external conditions; each plant strives to adapt itself to environment with as little demand upon its forces as possible and still keep up in the race. The best endowed species and individuals win the prize, and by variation as well as persistence. The constantly varying external forces to which all life is everywhere subjected demand that the inherent internal force shall always be ready to adapt itself or perish. The combination and interaction of these innumerable forces embraced in heredity and environment have given us all our bewildering species, none of which ever did or ever will remain constant, for the inherent life force must be pliable or outside forces will sooner or later extinguish it. Thus, adaptability as well as perseverance is one of the prime virtues in plant as in human life. Plant breeding is the intelligent application of the forces of the human mind in guiding the inherent life forces into useful directions by crossing to make perturbations or variations of these forces and by radically changing environments, both of which produce somewhat similar results, thus giving a broader field for selection, which, again, is simply the persistent application of mental force to guide and fix the perturbed forces in the desired channels. Plant breeding is in its earliest infancy. Its possibilities, and even its fundamental principles, are understood but by few. In the past it has been mostly dabbling with tremendous forces which have been only partially appreciated, and has yet to approach the precision which we expect in the handling of steam or electricity; and notwithstanding the occasional sneers of the ignorant, these silent forces embodied in plant life have yet a part to play in the regeneration of the race which, by comparison, will dwarf into insignificance the services which steam and electricity have so far given. Even unconscious or half conscious plant breeding has been one of the greatest forces in the elevation of the race. The chemist and the mechanic have, so to speak, domesticated some of the forces of nature, but the plant breeder is now learning to guide even the creative forces into new and useful channels. This knowledge is a most priceless legacy, making clear the way for some of the greatest benefits which man has ever received from any source by the study of nature. A general knowledge of the relations

and affinities of plants will not be a sufficient equipment for the successful plant breeder. He must be a skilful botanist and biologist, and, having a definite plan, must be able to correctly estimate the action of the two fundamental forces — inherent and external which he would guide.

The main object of crossing genera, species or varieties is to combine various individual tendencies, thus producing a state of perturbation or partial antagonism by which these tendencies are, in later generations, dissociated and recombined in new proportions, which gives the breeder a wider field for selection. But this opens a much more difficult one,- the selection and fixing of the desired new types from the mass of heterogeneous tendencies produced,― for by crossing, bad traits, as well as good, are always brought forth. The results now secured by the breeder will be in proportion to the accuracy and intensity of selection and the length of time they are applied. By these means the best grains, fruits, nuts, and flowers are capable of still further improvement in ways which to the thoughtless, often seem unnecessary, irrelevant or impossible. When we capture and domesticate the various plants, the life forces are relieved from many of the hardships of an unprotected wild condition, and have more leisure, so to speak, or, in other words, more surplus force to be guided by the hand of man under the new environments into all the useful and beautiful new forms which are constantly appearing under cultivation, crossing and selection. Some plants are very much more pliable than others, as the breeder soon learns. Plants having numerous representatives in various parts of the earth generally possess this adaptability in a much higher degree than the monotypic species, for, having been subjected to great variations of soil, climate and other influences, their continued existence has been secured only by the inherited habits which adaptation demanded; while the monotypic species, not being able to fit themselves for their surroundings without a too radical expensive change, have only continued to exist under certain special conditions. Thus, two important advantages are secured to the breeder who selects from the genera having numerous species- the advantage of naturally acquired pliability, and in the numerous species to work upon by combination for still further variations. The plant breeder, before making combinations, should with great care select the individual plants which seem best adapted to his purpose, as by this course many years of experiment and much needless expense will be avoided. The difference in the individuals which the plant breeder has to work upon are sometimes extremely slight. The ordinary unpractised person cannot, by any possibility, discover the exceedingly minute variations in form, size, color, fragrance, precocity and a thousand other characters which the practised breeder perceives by a lightning-like glance. The work is not easy, requiring an exceedingly keen perception of minute differences, great practice and extreme care in treating the organisms operated upon; and even with all the naturally acquired variations added to those secured by crossing and numerous other means, the careful accumulation of slight individual differences through many generations is imperative, after which sev

BREED'S HILL - BREGMA

eral generations are often but not always necessary to thoroughly "fix" the desired type for all practical purposes.

The above applies to annuals or those plants generally reproduced by seed. The breeder of plants which can be reproduced by division has great advantage, for any individual variation can be multiplied to any extent desired without the extreme care necessary in fixing by lineal breeding the one which must be reproduced by seed. But even in breeding perennials the first deviations from the original form are often almost unappreciable to the perception, but by accumulating the most minute differences through many generations the deviation from the original form is often astounding. Thus, by careful and intelligent breeding any peculiarity may be made permanent, and valid new species are at times produced by the art of the breeder, and there is no known limit to the improvement of plants by education, breeding, and selection.

The plant breeder is an explorer into the infinite. He will have "no time to make money," and his castle,- the brain,- must be clear and alert in throwing aside fossil ideas and rapidly replacing them with living, throbbing thought, followed by action. Then, and not until then, shall he create marvels of beauty and value in new expressions of materialized force, for everything of value must be produced by the intelligent application of the forces of nature which are always awaiting our commands. The vast possibilities of plant breeding can hardly be estimated. It would not be difficult for one man to breed a new rye, wheat, barley, oats, or rice which would produce one grain' more to each head, or a corn which would produce an extra kernel to each ear, another potato to each plant, or an apple, plum, orange, or nut to each tree. What would be the result! In five staples only in the United States alone the inexhaustible forces of nature would produce annually without effort and without cost:

15,000,000 extra bushels of wheat,
5,200,000 extra bushels of corn,
20,000,000 extra bushels of oats,
1,500,000 extra bushels of barley,
21,000,000 extra bushels of potatoes.

But these vast possibilities are not alone for one year, or for our own time or race, but are beneficent legacies for every man, woman, or child who shall ever inhabit the earth. And who can estimate the elevating and refining influences and moral value of flowers with all their graceful forms and bewitching shades and combinations for color and exquisitely varied perfumes? These silent influences are unconsciously felt even by those who do not appreciate them consciously, and thus with better and still better fruits, nuts, grains, and flowers will the earth be transformed and man's thoughts turned from the base destructive forces into the nobler productive ones, which will lift him to higher planes of action toward that happy day when man shall offer his brother man not bullets and bayonets, but richer grains, better fruits, and fairer flowers. Cultivation and care may help plants to do better work temporarily, but by breeding plants may be brought into existence which will do better work always, in all places and for all time. Plants are to be produced which will perform their appointed work better, quicker, and with the utmost precision. Science sees better grains, nuts, fruits,

and vegetables all in new forms, sizes, colors, and flavors, with more nutrients and less waste, and with every injurious and poisonous quality eliminated, and with power to resist sun, wind, rain, frost, and destructive fungus, and insect pests; fruits without stones, seeds or spines; better fibre, coffee, tea, spices, rubber, oil, paper and timber trees, and sugar, starch, color, and perfume plants. Every one of these and ten thousand more are within the reach of the most ordinary skill in plant breeding. Man is slowly learning that he, too, may guide the same forces which have been through all the ages performing this beneficent work which he sees everywhere, above, beneath, and around him in the vast teeming animal and plant life of the world. LUTHER BURBANK,

American Pomological Society.

Breed's Hill, Mass., a slight elevation in the Charlestown district of Boston, about 700 yards from Bunker Hill. Although the famous engagement of 17 June 1775 is known as the Battle of Bunker Hill, the fighting was done on Breed's Hill. Here was located the American redoubt, against which the British made their three historic charges, and here Warren fell. Bunker Hill monument stands on Breed's Hill.

Breese, Kidder Randolph, American naval entered the navy in 1846 and served in the Civil officer: b. Philadelphia, 14 April 1831. He War. In 1861 he commanded the third division of Porter's mortar flotilla in the attacks on he was lieutenant commander on the Mississippi New Orleans and Vicksburg; in 1863 and 1864 and took part in the most important engagements; in 1865 he was fleet-captain at the attack on Fort Fisher. He was made captain in 1874. Breeze-fly. See BOT-FLY.

Brefeld, Oskar, ōs'kär brā'fĕlt, German botanist: b. Telgte, Westphalia, 19 Aug. 1839. He was educated at Halle, Munich, and Würzburg. In 1875 he was a lecturer at Berlin; in 1878 he became professor at Eberswald, in 1884 at Münster, and in 1898 at Breslau. His investigations have been chiefly in mycology and he introduced a number of new methods in the study of this science, particularly the use of "gelatine cultures." He has written 'Researches in the Field of Mycology.'

Bregenz, bra-gents' (Latin, Brigantium), a town of Austria-Hungary, in Vorarlberg, 77 miles west by north of Innsbruck. It occupies a beautiful site on a slope which rises from the Lake of Constance and terminates on Mount Gebbard, where the ruins of the ancient stronghold of the Counts of Montfort are still seen. It consists of an old town, very poorly built, and a modern, which is more attractive. Among its edifices are three churches and two monasteries, a town hall, and a museum of Roman antiquities, found in the vicinity. Its chief manufacture is framework and other wooden fittings for houses, and it trades in corn, fruit, wine, butter, and cattle. There are saltpetre works, blast furnaces, and coal mines in the vicinity. Pop. (1900) 7,600.

Bregma. In the infant, a little behind the forehead in the middle line of the skull there is a diamond-shaped opening where the bones have not yet closed together. This situation is known as "bregma," and is taken as a landmark in medical and anthropological measurements.

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