planted on the soil the banners of England and of Venice. On his return he discerned two islands to the starboard, but for want of provisions, did not stop to examine them. He reached Bristol in August. His discovery attracted the favor of the English king, who on 3 Feb. 1498, granted him special authority to impress six English ships at no higher charges than were paid for ships taken for the king's service, to enlist companies of volunteers, "and theym convey and lede to the londe and iles of late founde by the seid John." This license has been erroneously called a second charter; it was not so; the charter of 1496 was still valid and sufficient. This license is the last record that has been found of the career of John Cabot. He himself made no voyage under it, whether from illness or death, or other reason, can only be conjectured. Neither the time nor the place of his death, nor his age, is known. Neither is it known what country gave him birth. He was a Venetian only by denization. As he is found residing at Bristol the conjecture would arise that he was born an Englishman; but the license granted him in February 1498 calls him "Kabotto, Venician," a phrase which in our day, and still more in those days of stricter feudal rule, clearly implies that he was not a naturalborn subject of the king of England. Had he

been so, he would have been claimed as an Englishman. Consult: Harrisse, Cabot, John, The Discoverer of North America, and Sebastian, His Son: a Chapter of the Maritime History of England under the Tudors (1496 1557) (1895).

Cabot, Sebastian, English navigator: b. Bristol, about 1474; other authorities say 1477; d. London 1557. He was the son of John Cabot (q.v.). Sebastian was early instructed in the mathematical knowledge required by a seaman, and at the age of 17 had made several voyages. In 1496 John Cabot obtained from Henry VII. letters patent empowering him and his three sons, Lewis, Sebastian, and Sanctius, to discover unknown lands, and conquer and settle them. In consequence of this permission the king supplied one ship, and the merchants of London and Bristol a few smaller ones, and John and Sebastian sailed to the northwest. In June 1497 the coast of Newfoundland, or, as some think, of Labrador, was reached. The accounts of this voyage are attended with much obscurity; but a second patent was granted to John Cabot in 1498, and it seems that, in a subsequent voyage, the father and son sailed as far as Cape Florida, and were actually the first who saw the mainland of America. Little, however, is known of the proceedings of Sebastian Cabot for the ensuing 20 years; but it seems that, in the reign of Henry VIII., by the patronage of Sir Thomas Peart, vice-admiral of England, he procured another ship to make discoveries, and attempted a southern passage to the East Indies, in which he failed. This disappointment is supposed to have induced him to quit England and visit Spain, on the invitation of Ferdinand. The death of the king lost him his patron, and in a few years he returned to England, and was employed by Henry VIII. to find out the northwest passage. After this expedition he again entered the Spanish service, and in 1526 began a voyage which resulted in his reaching the river La Plata, where he discovered St. Salvador,

and erected a fort there. He returned to England toward the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII. At the beginning of the reign of Edward VI. he was introduced by the protector Somerset to the young king, who settled a pension on him as grand pilot of England. From this time he was consulted on all questions relating to trade and navigation; and in 1552, being governor of the company of merchant adventurers, he drew up instructions, and procured a license for an expedition to discover a passage to the East Indies by the north. He was also governor of the Russian company, and was very active in their affairs. He was the first who noticed the variations of the compass; and he published a large map of the world, as also a work under the title of 'Navigazione nelle parti Septentrionali, per Sebastiano Cabota' (1583). See Nicholls, Remarkable Life of Sebastian Cabot (1869); Winship, Cabot Bibliography> (1900).

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Cabra, kä'bra, Spain a town in the province and 29 miles south-southeast of Cordova, in valley almost environed by mountains. It has wide streets; a large irregular, but imposing looking square; two large and handsome parish churches; a richly endowed college, etc. Pop. (1902) 13,000.

Cabral, or Cabrera, Pedro Alvarez, pā'drō äl'ba-reth ka-bräl', Portuguese navigator: b. about 1460; d. about 1526. In 1500 he received command of a fleet bound for the East Indies, and sailed from Lisbon, but having taken a course too far to the west he was carried by the South American current to the coast of Brazil, of which he took possession about 24 April 1500, in the name of Portugal. Continuing his voyage he lost several ships and men in a storm, but with the remainder he visited Mozambique, and at last reached India, where he made important commercial treaties with native princes, and then returned to Europe. Consult: Fiske, 'Discovery of America, Vol. II. (1892); Capistrano de Abreu, 'Descobrimento do Brasil' (1883).

Cabrera Bobadilla Cerda y Mendoza, Luis Gerónymo Fernandez de, loo-es hä-rōn'e-mō fĕr-nän'děth dã ka-bra'ra bō-ba-dēl'ya thãr'da è

men-do'tha, Spanish colonial governor: b. Madrid, about 1590; d. near there, 1647. He was viceroy of Peru 1629-39, during which period the useful properties of cinchona bark were discovered and the third ascent of the Amazon made. The cruelty of the Spaniards caused a revolt among the Urn Indians near Lake Titicaca, which Cabrera had great difficulty in suppressing.

Cabrera, Ramon, rä'mon ka-bra'ra, Carlist general: b. Tortosa, Catalonia, 31 Aug. 1810; d. Wentworth, England, 24 May 1877. He was brought up for the clerical profession, for which, however, he was unfitted by his love of pleasure and dissipation. When_civil war broke out between the partisans of Don Carlos and those of the queen Isabel II., the priests became the most zealous champions of Don Carlos, and their enthusiasm acted so powerfully upon the impetuous spirit of young Cabrera, that he joined in 1833 a small band of guerrillas. He fought with singular ferocity, which rose to fury, when, 16 Feb. 1836, upon the order of the queen and of Mina, Gen. Nogueras put to death Cabrera's

directly out of the main trunk and branches. If it fructifies, the petals fall off, and from the stamens, in the course of from fifty to seventy days, an oblong pod is developed. This pod is of golden color, and contains some twenty to thirty-five grains of cacao, enveloped in a gummy liquid, which coagulates on exposure to air. The outer rind of this pod is dark or golden yellow in color and very hard, a sharp instrument being necessary to cut it open. Its size varies, according to the kind of cacao, from 8 to 15 inches long by from 2 to 6 inches thick. The outer rind is marked by longitudinal furrows, more or less pronounced, which indicate the interior arrangement of the seeds.

In

The average yield of the trees varies in the different countries in which they grow. Ecuador the average is said to be from one to two pounds of dry cocoa to a tree. In Surinam the average is about two and one third pounds. The fully ripened pods are detached from the tree with a long pole armed with two prongs, or a knife at its extremity. The pods are left in a heap on the ground for about twenty-four hours; they are then cut open and the seeds are taken out and carried in baskets to the place where they undergo the operation of sweating or curing. There the acid juice which accompanies the seeds is first drained off, after which they are placed in a sweating box, in which they are enclosed and allowed to ferment for some time, great care being taken to keep the temperature from rising too high. The fermenting process is, in some cases, effected by throwing the seeds into holes or trenches in the ground, and covering them with earth or clay. The seeds in this process, which is called "claying," are occasionally stirred to keep the fermentation from proceeding too violently.

The cocoa is brought into the market in its crude state, as almond-shaped seeds which differ in color and somewhat in texture. They are first cleaned and then roasted, great care being taken to secure a uniform effect. By the roasting the shell becomes more readily detachable, and its complete removal is the next step. The crushing of the seeds into small fragments is easily accomplished; and this is followed by a thorough winnowing, by which the lighter shells are carried away by themselves, leaving the clean fragments of the roasted seeds ready for further manipulation.

The result of many analyses of the roasted seeds shows the following averages: Moisture, 6.51; fat, 49.24; theobromine, 43; starch, 10.43; cellulose, 3.1; other carbohydrates, glucosides, etc., 7.78; protein matters, 18.33; ash, 3.92.

The clean shells are used for the preparation of a wholesome and very low priced drink. The cracked cocoa or coarsely ground product of the roasted seeds is called "cocoa nibs" or cracked cocoa; the finely pulverized product of the roasted seeds from which a portion of the fat has been removed in order to make it more digestible and prevent it from caking, is called "breakfast cocoa" or "powdered cocoa." In the preparation of chocolate, the fragments are ground by a complicated mechanism until they attain the highest degree of fineness, and constitute a perfectly homogeneous mass or paste without removing any of the fat. The pure product of seeds prepared in this way, to which nothing is added and from which nothing is

taken away, is known as plain chocolate or bitter chocolate. Sweet chocolate is made by working into the mass a certain percentage of sugar. For flavoring, vanilla is generally used.

The fat or "cocoa butter," so called, constituting an average of about 50 per cent of the seeds, is, when pure and freshly extracted, of a pale, yellow color. Its consistency is about that of tallow. It is insoluble in water; completely soluble in sulphuric ether and the essential oil of turpentine. It is used very extensively in the manufacture of confections, and by pharmacists as the basis of pomades and ointments. Considered as a food and as a medicinal substance, it possesses the same fundamental property as other fat. JAMES M. BUGBEE.

Ca'capon, or Great Cacapon, a river in West Virginia. It flows nearly northwest through Hampshire and Morgan counties, and enters the Potomac about five miles from Berkeley Springs. Its length is about 140 miles.

Caccianiga, Antonio, Italian writer: b. Treviso, 1823. He founded a satirical magazine called 'Lo Spirito Folletto' at Milan in 1848; being exiled after the revolution of 1848 was for six years a journalist in Paris. He has been mayor of Treviso subsequently, and is the author of 'Il proscritta' (1853); Bozzetti morali ed economici (1869); 'La Vita Campestre); Villa Ortensia' (1876).

Caccini, kä-che'nē, Giulio, Italian composer: b. Rome about 1546; d. Florence, 1618. He was styled the father of a new music, having been the first to write an opera for performance in a public theatre. His works include 'Daphne,' and 'Apollo's Battle with the Serpent.'

Caceres, Andres Avelino, Peruvian military officer and statesman: b. Ayacucho, in southern Peru, 11 Nov. 1838. While still young he was actively engaged in political strife, serving as an officer under Castilla and Prado, and when the latter was overthrown, was imprisoned for a year. He distinguished himself at the taking of Arequipa. In 1857 he became military attaché to the legation of the Peruvian government at Paris, and was stationed at that post until 1860. In the Chilean war (1879-83) he served in nearly all of the battles, being rapidly promoted from colonel to the rank of general, and, after the taking of Lima, was made second vice-president in the provisional government of Calderon (June 1883). The imprisonment of Calderon, the president, and the absence of the first vice-president made him acting president of Peru. In his refusal to acknowledge Iglesias, whom the Chileans had placed at the head of the government at Lima, as president, Caceres was supported by the interior provinces, and he at once planned to depose him. In his first attempt to take Lima, in August 1884, he was repulsed in a bloody street fight, but after raising a larger force he appeared before the city, I Dec. 1885, and peaceably persuaded Iglesias to submit the office of president to a general election. This resulted in the election of Caceres, and on 3 June 1886 he was inaugurated president of Peru. The country prospered greatly under his administration, gradually recovering from the ill effects of the war; a private company absorbed the state railroads and guano beds and took over a portion of the na

tional debt. In 1890 he was defeated for the presidency by Bermudez, but was soon afterward, in 1891, appointed by him Peruvian minister to France and Spain. In 1894, upon the death of President Bermudez, the party of Caceres seized the reins of government, Caceres was proclaimed dictator, and the Congress forced to elect him president. The ex-dictator, Piérola, however, disputed his right to the office and besieged the city, on 18 March 1895, after a bloody conflict, taking it. A treaty of peace was signed between the two parties, in which Caceres was obliged to resign the presidency. He soon afterward fled and Piérola was elected president 10 July 1895.

Caceres, kä'thā-res, Spain, a town in Estremadura, capital of the province of the same name, 24 miles west by north of Truxillo. It consists of an old and a new town, the former crowning the top of a hill, and surrounded by a strong wall flanked with towers, and the latter built round it on the lower slopes. The houses are tolerably well built, but the streets are mostly narrow and steep. Among the objects worthy of notice are four churches, several old feudal mansions, and the bull-ring. Pop. (1902) about 16,000. The province of Caceres is the second largest of Spain, in the north of Estremadura, owned chiefly by large proprietors, and mostly devoted to cattle-raising; the north half is a good wine country. The area is over 8,000 square miles, and the population about

400,000.

Cáceres Nueva. See NUEVA CÁCERES. Cachalot. See SPERM WHALE. Cachar, kä-chär', a district of Assam, India, bounded east by Manipur and the Naga Hills, south by the Lushai Hills, west by Sylhet and the Jaintia Hills, and north by Nowgong district. It comprises a series of fertile valleys diversified by low hills and almost surrounded by mountain ranges. The Barak River flows through the district, its course here being about 130 miles. Lignite and petroleum have been found. Salt is manufactured in small quantities. The forests are of great extent, and constitute the chief natural wealth of the district.

Rice and tea are extensively cultivated. Area, 2.472 square miles; pop. (1902) 467,300. The chief town is Silchar.

Cache, the name of (1) a river in Arkansas, flowing northwest about 150 miles into the White River, near Clarendon, Monroe County; (2) a peak of the Rocky Mountains in Idaho, height 10,451 feet; (3) a fertile valley in the Wasatch Mountains in Utah and Idaho. It is 60 miles long and from 10 to 20 miles wide, and has an altitude of 5,000 feet. It is watered by the Bear River, and has several villages, of which Logan is the largest.

Cache, käsh, a hole in the ground for hiding and preserving provisions which it is inconvenient to carry; used by settlers or travelers in unpeopled parts of North America, and by Arctic explorers.

Cachet, Lettres de, lětr de kä-shā, a term formerly applied especially to letters proceeding from and signed by the kings of France, and countersigned by a secretary of state. They were at first made use of occasionally as a means of delaying the course of justice, and appear to have been rarely employed before

the 17th century as arbitrary warrant for the detention of private citizens, and for depriving them of their personal liberty. During the reign of Louis XIV. their use became frightfully common, and by means of them persons were imprisoned for long periods, or for life, on the most frivolous pretexts. Sometimes, however, such arrests were favors on the part of the king, as they withdrew the accused from the severer punishment to which they would have been liable upon trial before the courts. Lettres de cachet were abolished at the Revolution.

Cachexy, ka-kěk'si, or Cachexia, ką-kčksi-a, (Gr., "evil habit of body"), a morbid state of the bodily system, in which there is great weakness, with or without the local manifestation of some constitutional disease. It is not a disease of itself, but the result of diseases such as gout, cancer, lead-poisoning, tuberculosis, syphilis, intermittent fever, excessive use of alcohol, etc. Thus scrofulous cachexia means the condition of body due to scrofula, shown by slender form, narrow or deformed chest, pallor, diseased glands, large prominent joints, etc.

Cachexia Strumipriva. See THYROID GLAND, Diseases of.

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Cachoeira, ka-shwa'e-ra, Brazil, a town the state and 62 miles northwest of Bahia. It stands on the Paraguassu, which divides it into two unequal parts and has often injured it by inundations, and is the entrepôt for the traffic of a large extent of surrounding country. The chief exports are coffee, cotton, and tobacco. Pop. 15,000.

Cacholong, a mineral of the quartz family, a variety of opal, often called pearl-opal. It is usually milk-white, sometimes grayish or yellowish white, opaque or slightly translucent at the edges. It often envelops common chalcedony, the two minerals being united by insensible shades. It also associates with flint and semi-opal.

Cachou, kă-shoo', an aromatic sweetmeat

in the form of a silvered pill, used for giving

an agreeable odor to the breath.

Cachucha, kä-choo'cha, an Andalusian dance, resembling the bolero, performed to a graceful air in 3-4 time and with a strongly

marked accent.

Cacique, kä-sēk', or Cazique, a title borne by, or a designation given to, the chiefs of Indian tribes in Central and South America, Cuba, Haiti, etc. The term was formed by the Spaniards from a native Haitian word.

Caçique, one of several South American icterine birds, forming the genus Cassicus, and closely related to the Baltimore oriole (q.v.). They are sometimes uniform black, sometimes black relieved by chestnut, yellow, green, or scarlet; the bill is frequently white instead of the usual black or brown. The caçiques are noted for their intricately woven, pouch-like nests, composed of thin bark and grasses, several of which, sometimes a yard in length, hang from the outer twigs of a single branch of some large tree, usually overhanging the water, as an extra precaution of safety against monkeys and snakes.