incrustation, the masking or covering of brick surfaces with more precious materials, was largely in use. It depended much on color and surface ornament for its effect, and with this intent mosaics wrought on grounds of gold or of positive color are profusely introduced, while colored marbles and stones of various kinds are made much use of. The capitals are of peculiar and original design, the most characteristic being square and tapering downward, and they are very varied in their decorations. Byzantine architecture may be divided into an older and a newer (Neo-Byzantine) style. The most distinctive feature of the latter is that the dome is raised on a perpendicular circular or polygonal piece of masonry (technically the drum) containing windows for lighting the interior, while in the older style the light was admitted by openings in the dome itself. The Byzantine style had a great influence on the architecture of western Europe, especially in Italy, where Saint Mark's in Venice is a magnificent example, as also in Sicily.

Our knowledge of the earliest decorations other than mosaic is very slight. It is gathered from painted manuscripts, book bindings often of metal and ornamented with precious stones, a few enamels, and some glass ware, and a very few paintings on wood, forming parts of the iconostasis or choir screen of this or that church of the Greek form of Christianity. The mosaics are the most important decorations of the earlier art, so far as we have any knowledge of it, and these are more familiar to Europe as found in the churches of Ravenna than in any building farther East. The fact that Moslem rule requires the covering up as with whitewash of these representations when a church is taken over for a mosque, makes it probable that at some future time many fine early mosaics will be uncovered.

The characteristic of Byzantine art is rich decorative effects almost to the exclusion of accurate drawing or modeling of the human figure or faithful representation of nature in any form. Early or late, the attitudes of personages represented are formal and conventional, but the robes are splendid, the backgrounds are rich and the effect is that of a splendid colored pattern with but slight representative or expressional meaning. Sculpture has never risen to excellence; it is almost limited to decorative carvings, of book covers and sacred objects, reliefs in ivory and casting of small figures in bronze. The earlier statues of emperors and the like are chiefly remarkable for the lingering

Roman traditions.

The art sometimes called Neo-Byzantine is of the 10th and following centuries, and has a surprising vigor and individuality. One of the typical churches is that of Saint Elias at Salonica. This has a plan like that of a northern Romanesque church, the three apses, east, north, and south, radiating from the sanctuary, which is covered by a cupola having a high, twelvesided drum with vertical walls pierced with windows forming a continuous arcade, and a very low-pitched roof which covers the shallow, dome-shaped ceiling. That type of cupola is the one which has been used all through the provinces which are now included in European Russia, and in the lands on the Black Sea which still belong to Turkey, as well as in Greece

proper. Paintings often replace mosaics in these more recent churches.

Byzantium, bi-zăn'shi-ŭm, the name of the city of Constantinople before its name was changed by Constantine the Great. It was founded by a colony of Greeks from Megara, who, under a leader named Byzas, settled on what seemed a favorable spot at the entrance to the Thracian Bosporus, in 658 B.C. The city which was built by the first colonists was named after their leader. Other colonists followed from different quarters, especially from Miletus, and Byzantium was already a flourishing town when it was taken and sacked by the Persians, in the reign of Darius, the son of Hystaspes. After the retreat of the Persians (479 B.C.) Byzantium soon recovered itself. During the Peloponnesian war it acknowledged for some time the supremacy of the Athenians, but afterward fell away. Alcibiades recovered it for Athens (409), but it was taken by Lysander in 405. At a later period the Byzantines received support from Athens in their resistance against Philip of Macedon. The barbarian Thracians, who occupied the neighboring territory, and the Celts (Galatians), in their migrations to the East, often appeared to threaten the safety of the town; but in spite of this, chiefly owing to its favorable position for commerce, it continued to prosper, and survived the decay of most of the other Greek cities; and even under the Romans it was left free to manage its own affairs, and was allowed to demand dues from all ships passing through the Bosporus, only part of these being claimed by the Romans. At the end of the 2d century of the Christian era Byzantium, unfortunately for itself, sided with Pescennius Niger against Septimius Severus. By the latter it was besieged for three years, and when at last it was forced to surrender Severus ordered its walls to be razed to the ground, deprived the city of its privileges, and placed it under the jurisdiction of the Perinthians. For a time the prosperity of the city was annihilated, until a new and more brilliant era began for it under Constantine the Great. (See CONSTANTINE; CONSTANTINOPLE.) Its early form of governinto an oligarchy. In the year 390 B.C. it rement was that of an aristocracy, which passed ceived from Thrasybulus a democratical constitution, closely resembling that of the Athenians. Byzantium was the great entrepôt for the grain trade between the countries bordering on the Black Sea and those bordering on the gean.

Bzovius, Abraham (Pol. Bzowski), Polish scholar and divine: b. Proszowice, near Miechow, 1567; d. Rome, 31 Jan. 1637. At the request of Pope Paul V., he spent several years of the latter part of his life in the Vatican, as librarian of the Virginio dei Ursini, and actively engaged in literary pursuits. He was a member of the order of the Dominicans, one of the most voluminous writers of his age, gained for himself a high reputation as professor of philosophy and theology at Milan and Bologna, and crowned the labors of his life by continuing the celebrated ecclesiastical annals of Cæsar Baronius, who had left them off at the year 1198, and completed only 12 volumes. Bzovius carried them to the year 1532, in 9 volumes.

C

the third character of the English alphabet and of all the alphabets derived from the Latin. In its form it is a modification of the primitive Greek gamma. That primitive form was, an angle with vertex pointing to the left; it is the reverse of the ancient Phoenician 7, which points to the right, and of the Old Hebrew gimel, 7. The Latin C (used also by the Greeks to some extent) is the ancient Greek <rounded, just as the later Greek gamma symbol, I, is the angular symbol erected. The Russian alphabet retains the Greek symbol г, but its place is fourth, because in that alphabet the sign for the denti-labial V holds the third place. The Greek gamma (<, T,) seems to have always represented the same sonant guttural as the English g in "go." To express the corresponding mute guttural the Greeks attached the to an upright line, |, making K. In the Latin alphabet of the Romans, as represented in their earliest inscriptions, the C stood for the same sonant guttural as in the Greek, g hard; for example, lecio, later written legio; macistratus, later magistratus; yet at the same time the C represented also the surd guttural K, as it still does in English except before the vowels e and i and the diphthongs & and a in words from the Latin. Thus the early Latin alphabet was without the symbol K. There is in this use of the character C in ancient Roman epigraphy ground for the inference that the early Romans confounded the two gutturals k and g hard, as in some localities or in some classes of people the termination ing becomes ink, and "something" becomes "somethink." But at a later period the distinction between g hard and k was recognized, and then for the designation of the mute guttural the kappa (K) of the Greek alphabet came into use in Latin writing. But the k was afterward rejected, and its only use in Latin was in writing the word kalenda (abbreviated to kal. or k.) and as an abbreviation of Carthago (Carthage) and of the personal name Caso. No doubt the persistence of k in kalende was due to the adherence of the Pontifices to the antique forms of the official calendars; and the K standing for the forename Caso was retained as a means of abbreviating that name and distinguishing it from the abbreviation of the name Caius: C. Julius Cæsar is Gaius, but K. Fabius Ambustus is Cæso. But the k having been discarded from the Latin alphabet, its function was assigned to the symbol C, while for representation of the sonant guttural a modified form of C was adopted, namely, the G with the value of g in "go." The soft g, equal to j, was probably unknown to the Romans before the general debasement of the Latin language. After the symbol k had been discarded and been

superseded by C, the symbol C, with the power of gamma, was retained as an initial abbreviation of Gaius, name for a man, and of Gaia (with C reversed ), name of a woman. C was also retained in the formula Cn. as an abbreviation of Gnæus. This use of the initial C as representing g hard (sonant guttural) recalls the primitive equivalence for the Romans of the two gutturals k and g hard; but the modern Latinists, unacquainted with such use of C, have usually pronounced Gaius "Kaius" and Cnæus "Knæus," instead of "Gæus" and "Gnæus." In the Anglo-Saxon, its alphabet having been derived from the Latin, the C had everywhere the value of K, and the same is to be said of the Gælic; that fact gives presumptive proof that at the first contact of the Gælic and Germanic races with men of Latin speech the C in all situations was equivalent to k in Latin; and the German word Kaiser is proof that when the Germans first heard of Julius and the Caesars who succeeded him the head of the Roman state was "Kaisar," not "Cæsar." The change in the pronunciation of C from k to s, as in French and English; to ch as in Italian, to ts as in German, appears to have come about long after the fall of the Roman empire.

Ca Ira, sä e-ra, a popular song of the great French Revolution. The origin and date of this song are both uncertain, and there are various versions of the words claiming to be original. In all probability it dates from May or June 1790. French writers say that Benjamin Franklin, in speaking of the American Revolution, frequently used the expression "Ça ira" ("it will succeed"). The French republicans caught up the phrase, and "consecrated" it to their own revolution in a popular hymn. The air to which it was adapted was a popular carillon, a favorite one with Marie Antoinette. The refrain or chorus of one of the versions runs thus:

"Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira,

En dépit d' l'aristocrat' et d' la pluie,
Ah! ça ira, etc.

Nous nous mouillerons, mais ça finira,"

referring to the rain which fell during the taking of the Bastile.

Caaba, kä'ba, or ka'a-ba, or Kaaba, properly a quadrangular structure, applied particularly to a celebrated temple at Mecca. According to Mussulman tradition, the first Caaba was built by the angels on the model of the pavilion which surrounds the throne of the Most High; the second was built by Adam, with whom it was removed to the skies, where it still exists in a right line above the Caaba of Mecca; the third was built by Seth, but perished in the deluge; the fourth, which now exists, was built

by Abraham and Ishmael. The name is specially given to a small cubical oratory in the temple in the centre of a large space surrounded by galleries. This is the point toward which the prayers of all Mussulmans are directed. On one of its sides is inwrought the famous oval black stone, believed to be one of the precious stones of paradise, and to have been brought by the angel Gabriel to Abraham, when he was constructing the Caaba. At first, according to one version, of a dazzling whiteness, the Moslems say that it grieved and wept so long for the sins of the human race that it became gradually opaque, and at length absolutely black; or, in another version, that it has been blackened by the tears of pilgrims, shed for sin. It is an object of profound veneration to the pilgrims who resort to the sacred city. This inner Caaba is surrounded with a veil of black silk, and is opened but two or three times a year, and none but the faithful are permitted to approach it. The temple of the Caaba is older than the time of Mohammed, previous to whom it was the Arab pantheon, containing the nation's idols.

Caaing-whale, kä-ing hwal, one of several species of porpoise-like cetaceans of the Killer family (Orcide), characterized by its globose head; properly Globiocephalus melas, of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is from 16 to 24 feet long, 10 feet in diameter at its thickest part, and weighs between 5,000 and 6,000 pounds. Its pectoral fins are about 5 feet long and 18 inches broad, and its dorsal fin is very low. With the exception of a white streak, which begins in the form of a heart under the throat and gradually narrows to the vent, the whole of the body is of a glossy black color, and hence the fish is frequently known as the blackfish (q.v.) or black dolphin. The teeth are arranged at considerable distances in the upper and under jaw in such a manner that those of the upper jaw fit into the spaces left in the lower jaw, and conversely, Their number is very variable. They are conical in shape, strong, rather long, and end in a point which is a little curved backward and inward. The caaing-whale is very abundant and very widely distributed. It is found in the whole of the Arctic Ocean, and also in the German, Atlantic, and Pacific oceans, and even in the Mediterranean Sea. It is remarkable for its gregarious habits, being often found in schools numbering several hundreds, which are led by an old and experienced male whom, it is said, they never abandon. On this account its pursuers always endeavor to force the leader on shore, and when this is accomplished all the rest follow him and are likewise stranded-hence the Scotch name "caaing," equivalent to "driving." In the stomachs of these animals are usually found the remains of cod-fishes and various spe cies of cuttle-fish, as well as of herrings, ling, and other fishes. The caaing whale is pursued chiefly on account of its oil. See WHALE.

CABALLERO

Cabal', an English ministry under Charles II. (1667-73), composed of Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, the initials of whose names form this word, whence perhaps its use as a designation. But the use of this word to signify a body of intriguers was not originally derived from this circumstance, as sometimes supposed, for the word cabale, derived from cabala (q.v.), was used in that sense in French before this time.

Cab'ala, or Cabbala (reception), is used by the Jews to denote sometimes the traditions of their ancestors regarding the interpretation of the Scriptures; sometimes, and most commonly, their mystical philosophy. The opinions of scholars respecting the origin of the Cabalistic philosophy are very various. The Jews derive the Cabala from the most ancient times of their nation, nay, even from Adam himself. But their origin about 200 years before Christ, and Cabalistic doctrines in reality seem to have had ideas with those belonging to the Mosaic religion were derived from the mingling of Oriental that was the result of the captivity. It was long before the Cabala reached its full development, however, the chief landmarks in its history being the writings of Philo Judæus and the appearance of the books called the Sefer Jezirah, Book of Creation,' and the Sefer Zohar, 'Book of Light.' The age of both is doubtful. The earliest probable date for the Sefer Jezirah is the beginning of our era. The earliest mention of the Sefer Zohar is in 1290, and the author is not supposed to have lived much before 1000. The Cabala is divided into the symbolical and the real. The symbolical portion treats principally of letters, to which it gives mystical significations. The real, which is opposed to the symbolical, and comprehends doctrines, is divided into the theoretical and the practical. The aim of the theoretical is to explain the Scriptures according to the secret traditions, and to form therefrom a philosophical system of metaphysics, physics, and pneumatology. The practical portion, on the other hand, pretends to teach the art of performing miracles, and that merely by an artificial application of the divine names and sentences in the Scriptures. After the revival of science many scholars studied the Cabala. The most famous modern Cabalists are Henry More and Christian Knorr, the latter of whom published a compilation of the most important parts of the Cabalistic writings in Latin (1677).

Caballero, Fernan, fer-nän' kä-ba-lya'ro, pseudonym of CECELIA BÖHL VON FABER, Spanish novelist, daughter of a German settled in Spain and married to a Spanish lady: b. Morges, near 7 April 1877. Brought up in Germany, she went Lausanne, Switzerland, 25 Dec. 1796; d. Seville, to Cadiz with her father in 1813. Her first novel, lowed by Elia, Clemencia, La Familia de La Gaviota, appeared in 1849, and was folAlvareda,' etc., as well as by many shorter stories. In 1859 she published a collection of folk-tales under the title, Cuentas y Poesias Populares Andaluces. Some of her works have appeared in English translations, including 'La Gaviota' (translated as 'The Sea-Gull. 1867); 'Elia: or Spain Fifty Years Ago (1868); AirBuilt Castles'; and The Bird of Truth' (1881). The chief charm of her writings lies in her descriptions of life and nature in Andalusia. She was three times left a widow; her last hus