nothing homologous with the foot, the shellgland or odontophore of mollusks.

In accordance with the fact that the Brachiopods are a generalized type of worms, the species have a high antiquity, and the type is remarkably persistent. The Lingula of our shores (Glottidia pyramidata) lives buried in the sand, where it forms tubes of sand around the peduncle, just below low-water mark from Chesapeake Bay to Florida. It has remarkable vitality, not only withstanding the changes of temperature and exposure to death from various other causes, but will bear transportation to other countries in sea-water that has been unchanged. Living lingulæ have been carried from Japan to Boston, Mass., the water in the small glass jar containing the specimens having been changed but twice in four months. The living species of this cosmopolitan genus differ but slightly from those occurring in the lowest fossiliferous strata. Between 80 and 90 living species are known, most of them living, except Lingula, which is tropical, in the temperate or arctic seas, while nearly 2,000 fossil species are known. The type attained its maximum in the Silurian age, and in Palæozoic times a few species, as Atrypa reticularis, extended through an entire system of rocks and inhabited the seas of both hemispheres.

Consult Littel-Eastman, 'Text-book of Palæontology) (New York 1900).

Bracht, bräнt, Felix Prosper Eugen, German artist, b. Morges, Switzerland, 1842. He is best known as a landscape artist. He studied at Carlsruhe and Düsseldorf, and in 1882 was appointed a professor in the Berlin Academy. Among notable paintings by him are 'Stormy Evening on Rügen'; Moonlight Night in the Desert'; 'Nightfall on the Dead Sea. The last named work, now in the National Gallery of Berlin, is considered his best.

Brachvogel, Emil, a'mēl braн'fō-gël, German novelist and dramatist: b. Breslau, 1824; d. 1878. He is best known by his drama, 'Nar cisse' (1857), which attained many editions and was translated into various European tongues. 'Beaumarchais (1865); Benoni (1860); and 'Glencarty (1872).

Brachyura, brǎk-i-ū'ra, a sub-order of decapodous crustaceans, containing those families in which the abdomen is converted into a short jointed tail folding closely under the breast. The common crab is a familiar example of this group. See CRUSTACEA.

Brack'en (Pterisaquilina), a well-known species of polypodiaceous fern, forming the type of the sub-family Pteridea. It has a black, creeping rhizome, from which are sent up large, handsome bipinnate fronds. The sori are arranged along the margins of the pinnules, and are covered by a false indusium formed of the reflexed margin. The bracken or brake is very common in Great Britain where it frequently covers large extents of country. Its root-stock was at one time used for food, but it is neither palatable nor nutritious; that of a New Zealand species (P. esculenta) is better suited for this purpose. Various medicinal virtues have been at one time or another ascribed to it, but it is not now used in medicine. The ash produced by burning the fronds has been employed in making soap. Other species are met

with in various parts of the world. In verse the word is often loosely employed to indicate ferns in general.

Brack'enbury, Charles Booth, English soldier and military writer: b. Bayswater, Middlesex, 7 Nov. 1831. He served in the Crimean war in 1855; accompanied the Prussian army in the war with Austria (1866), and the FrancoPrussian war (1870-71), and was with the Russian army in the Russo-Turkish war (1877-8). His works include 'European Armaments (1867); The Winter Campaign of Prince Frederick Charles in 1870-71'; 'Reforms of the French Army) (1874), etc.

Brackenbury, Sir Henry, English soldier: b. Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, September 1837. He entered the Royal Artillery in 1856, served in the central Indian, Ashanti and Zulu campaigns and was made lieutenant-general in 1888, and director-general at the war office in 1899. He has published Fanti and Ashanti (1873); Narrative of the Ashanti War (1874); The River Column' (1885).

His

Brack'enridge, Henry Marie, American author: b. Pittsburg, Pa., II May 1786; d. there 18 Jan., 1871. He was educated by his father, H. H. Brackenridge (q.v.) and admitted to the bar 1806. In 1811 he descended the Mississippi River in a "keel-boat" to New Orleans, and was soon appointed deputy attorney-general for the then territory of Orleans, becoming district judge in 1812. In 1817 he was secretary to republics, and in 1821 was appointed U. S. judge the commission sent to the South American for the western district of Florida, holding it until he removed to Pittsburg in 1832. knowledge of the French and Spanish languages and laws made him of considerable service to the government in all affairs connected with the Louisiana and Florida purchases. He wrote 'Views of Louisiana in 1810' (1812); 'Letter to Mr. Monroe. By an American'; Voyage to South America in 1817-18) (1818); (History of the Late War [1812] between the United States and Great Britain'; 'Recollections of Persons and Places in the West) (1834); Essays on Trusts and Trustees (1842); History of the Western Insurrection) (1859), a vindication of his father's share in that affair.

jurist: b. near Campbelton, Scotland, 1748; d. Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, American Carlisle, Pa., 25 June 1816. He came with his father to the United States at the age of five, and was graduated form Princeton in 1771. During the American Revolution he was a chaplain in the army. After being admitted to the bar he removed to Pittsburg, became prominent in his profession, and during the "Whisky Insurrection" (1794) was influential in bringing about a settlement between the government and the mal contents. In 1799 he was appointed to the supreme bench of Pennsylvania. A man of literary tastes, he wrote a number of pieces much thought of in their day. At his graduation he wrote (with Philip Freneau) a poetical dialogue The Rising Glory of America. Other works by him are Incidents of the Insurrection in Western Pennsylvania' (1795); 'Law Miscellanies) (1814); Modern Chivalry, or the Adventures of Captain Farrago and Teague O'Regan, His Servant,' a political satire and his best work (1st Pt. 1796; 2d, 1806).

Bracket, a short piece or combination of pieces, generally more or less triangular in outline, projecting from a wall or other surface. They may be either of an ornamental order, as when designed to support a statue, a bust, or such like, or plain forms of carpentry, such as support shelves, etc. Brackets may also be used in connection with machinery, being attached to walls, beams, etc., to sustain a line of shafting.

Brack'ett, Anna Callender, American educator: b. Boston, 21 May 1836. She taught in various normal schools, being the first woman principal of such an institution, and was principal of a private school for girls in New York for 20 years. She has published Education of American Girls' (1874); Philosophy of Education, from the German (1886); Technique of Rest' (1892); 'Woman and the Higher Education (1893).

Brackett, Frank Parkhurst, American mathematician: b. Provincetown, Mass., 1865, He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1887, and since 1890 has been professor of mathematics and astronomy at Pomona College, Claremont, California. He has written several important mathematical and meteorological papers.

Brackett, Gustavus B., American pomologist: b. Unity, Maine, 24 March 1827. He served in the Civil War, and, at its close, took up the study of horticulture and pomology. He served as an expert at the Paris Exposition (1878) and the Chicago World's Fair (1893), after which he became chief of the Division of Pomology in the United States Department of Agriculture.

Brackett, John Quincy Adams, American lawyer: b. Bradford, N. H., 8 June 1842. After studying law at the Harvard Law School he began the practice of his profession in Boston. He sat for several terms in the Massachusetts legislature (1877-82 and 1884-7), being speaker of the House (1885-7); was lieutenant-governor of the State (1887-90), and governor of Massachusetts (1890-91).

Bracquemond, Joseph Felix, zhō-zěf fālēks brak-môn, French artist and engraver: b. Paris, 1833. He first exhibited in the Salon of 1852 and his etchings and reproductions of noted masters speedily brought him into notice. His portraits are especially prized and as an etcher he is represented by over 800 plates. He has invented a new method of china decoration and has done much work for the porcelain establishments at Limoges.

Bract, a leaf, from the axil of which a flower or flower-stalk develops, and thus distinguished from the ordinary leaf, from the axil of which the leaf-bud proceeds. Bracts may thus be entirely similar to the ordinary leaves of a plant, in which case they are called leafy bracts; but very commonly they are somewhat changed in form, and although they may be sometimes divided, they are for the most part entire, even when the ordinary leaves divided. In some cases they are so much changed in form as to be mere scales or threads, and sometimes they are not developed at all, in which case the inflorescence is said to be ebracteate. Owing to the different ways in which the bract appears, it may in some plants be con

are

founded with the calyx, in others with the corolla. When the flowers of a plant are sessile, the bracts are often applied closely to the calyx, and are thus apt to be confounded with it; and when the bracts are colored, they are apt to be mistaken for parts of the corolla. When the inflorescence of a plant is branching, subordinate flower-stalks proceeding from one main flowerstalk, bracts are often seen at the base of the former, and these are called bracteoles. A spathe is a kind of large bract.

Brac'teates, thin coins of gold or silver, with irregular figures on them, stamped upon one surface only, so that the impression appears raised on one side, while on the other it appears hollow. They viere largely circulated under Otho I., emperor of Germany, and derive their name from bractea, signifying leaf of gold or other metal. They are of importance as illustrating history. Bracteated coins, or bracteati nummi, is a term used to signify coins or medals covered over with a thin plate of some richer metal. They were usually made of iron, copper, or brass, plated over and edged with gold

or silver leaf.

Brac'ton, Henry de, one of the earliest writers on English law, flourished in the 13th century. He studied civil and canon law at Oxford, and about the year 1244, Henry III. made him one of his judges itinerant. Some writers say that he was afterward chief-justice of England; but his fame at present is derived from his legal treatise entitled 'De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliæ, first printed in 1569 (folio). The quarto edition of 1640 was merely a reprint of the first. In 1878-83 Sir Travers Twiss issued a recension and translation in six volumes. See Scrutton, Influence of the Roman Law on the Law of England' (1885).

Brad'bury, William Batchelder, American musician: b. York, Me., 6 Oct. 1816; d. Montclair, N. J., 7 Jan. 1868. In 1840 he began teaching in New York and Brooklyn. He organized free singing schools and his concerts, at which the performers, all children, sometimes numbered 1,000, became very popular. In 1847-8 he went to Europe, where he pursued musical studies under Hauptmann and others. In 1854, in company with his brother, E. G. Bradbury, he began the manufacture of pianos, a business which proved extremely successful. He is best known as the composer and publisher of musical collections for schools and choirs, 59 separate works being credited to him, of which over 5,000,000 copies have been sold. The more important of his works are Young Choir' (1841); Flora's Festival' (1845); The Golden Golden Trio' (1864); The Shawm) (1864); Chain (1861); Pilgrim Song (1863); The The Jubilee (1865); Temple Choir'; 'Fresh Laurels (1867), his last work.

Bradbury, William Frothingham, American educator: b. Westminster, Mass., 17 May 1829 he was head master of the high school, Cambridge, 1881-86, and of the Cambridge Latin School from 1886. He has published a series of 24 mathematical text-books and has been secretary of the Boston Handel and Haydn Society from 1899.

Brad'dock, Edward, British general: b. Perthshire, Scotland, about 1695; d. Great Meadows, Pa., 13 July 1755. Through his

father, an officer in the Coldstream Guards, who rose to be a lieutenant-colonel there and major-general of the line, he became in 1710 an ensign in that body, the haughty élite of British troops; which had the Duke of Cumberland, captain-general of the whole army, for one of its colonels, men of rank for subalterns, and its very privates chosen by other bodies for commissioned officers. Appointed captain in 1736, he rose to lieutenant-colonel by service on the Continent 1742-5, including Cumberland's battle of Fontenoy in 1745, where the Coldstreams covered themselves with glory; and in 1754 was made major-general of the line, thus paralleling his father. In that year an expedition to destroy the French power in America was resolved on; and on 24 September Braddock was made generalissimo of all the forces there, beyond question as being the officer known to Cumberland who was best able to accomplish the task. But his experience made him overrate formal discipline, and underrate (not only in action but in expert counsel) both foes and allies who lacked it; he could not fully realize new dangers nor appreciate methods of meeting them; he was hot of temper, rough of speech, overbearing in argument, obstinate in opinion; and these, with the martinetism natural enough in an officer of 60 after 43 years of the Coldstreams, and which were not vital in a drilled service, fatally alienated those in the new land on whom he had to depend for safety. Yet he was quick to recognize ability, and warm in acknowledging it; he regarded Washington and Franklin, the former but 22, as the greatest men in the colonies; and when the royal order of 1754 ranking all colonial commissions below all English ones prevented Washington from joining him, he sent a handsome letter asking the latter to be one of his military family, and voluntarily promised to use his influence in securing him a regular English commission. Landing at Hampton Roads, Va., 20 Feb. 1755, he attempted to collect men and stores for his expedition against Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg), but was baffled for many weeks by the sloth, rapacity, and unpatriotic local factions of the colonies, who did their best to justify the contempt with which he heartily if injudiciously visited them. The lack of men, supplies, transportation, and money delayed the expedition to its ruin. He tried to secure a large body of Indians for scouts and allies, but only obtained 40 or 50. He let all but eight of them go through bad judgment, and disgusted those so greatly by his manners that one of them deserted, and the rest warned their friends against coming near. The famous Indian hunter, Capt. Jack, wished to join him, but Braddock refused unless he would conform to military discipline, which the old scout would not do. Finally the expedition started from Fort Cumberland (now Cumberland, Md.) the first week in June, with 2,150 men. The march was most toilsome and slow, involving cutting roads, bridging streams, making causeways, passing through swamps, etc.; and on the 18th, at Little Meadows, 1,200 picked men were chosen to continue the expedition, the rest being left behind under Dunbar. On the night of 4 July he halted two days about 25 miles from his destination, to wait the reports of his Indian scouts and convoy of provisions from Dunbar's camp-to his destruction but not to his blame. Reaching Turtle (now Rush) Creek the road

suddenly ended at a precipice impassable for artillery and wagons, and he decided to quit the ridge, where ambuscade was impossible, and make a double fording across an elbow of the Monongahela. Meantime the French commander, Contrecœur, had decided to withdraw without a blow, but a Capt. Beaujeu asked leave to take a detachment and resist the passage of the second ford, eight miles off. He was given about 200 white troops, and by a brilliant appeal on the morning of the 9th to the Indians, who at first hung back, obtained several hundred of them also. When he came in sight of the English, they had already crossed, and advanced so that both flanks would be exposed for some 200 yards to an enemy who occupied the deep ravines, thick with tangled forest growth and vines, that seamed the river bluff. Braddock's ruinous error was in not beating up ahead on his flanks, as Col. Sir Peter Halket urgently besought him to do the night before; thereby he marched straight into the worst of ambushes. Into these the Indians glided, while the white troops barred the English path in front; and the head of the advancing column went down under a storm of lead. Shaken for a moment, the vanguard moved against the concentric ring; and after another terrible discharge, returned it with a volley that swept away every enemy in sight, and struck Beaujeu and a dozen others dead. The Indians turned to fly; rallied by the other French officers, they returned to cover, and under their unerring fire the English advance broke and retreated; mixing with the rear in the narrow path, both became mingled in a mob which Braddock could not restore to order. Huddled into a 12-foot road, shut in by a forest alive with yells and filled with an invisible foe, they lost all sense or perception, and twice shot down bodies of their own men who had gained slight vantage points, taking their smoke for the enemy's. Fifty Virginians were thus slain at a blow. The regulars refused to charge, though Braddock, with four horses successively shot under him, and the other officers strove to hearten them to invade the wood; the provincials sought to fight Indian fashion behind trees and logs, but Braddock with furious threats and blows drove them back into rank again, where they fell in scores. Washington and Halket begged to have them allowed to leave the ranks, but Braddock still refused. The ammunition began to fail; the baggage was attacked; all Braddock's aides but Washington were shot down; three fourths of the officers, and three fifths of the entire army; and only then would the ill-judging but heroic Braddock give the signal for retreat. Shortly afterward Braddock received a ball through the lungs; not one of the English soldiery_would stay to carry him off the field, but one English and two American officers took him from the field to a spot half a mile across the river. Here the dying hero tried to establish a camp for a rallying place, and to care for the wounded and wait for Washington's return from Dunbar; but although the French and Indians had not followed them across, the 100 English soldiers he had induced to stop there stole away again and fled. The officers with their commander marched on till 10 P.M. on the 10th, when they halted and met the convoy from Dunbar, Braddock never ceasing to give calm, skilful, and humane orders; on the 11th he reached

Dunbar's camp, where the news of the rout had set his soldiers also deserting and fleeing in wild panic. Giving up all hope of the expedition in any hands now, he had the stores destroyed to keep them from the enemy, save enough for a flying march; and the remnant of the army proceeded toward Great Meadows, where Braddock expired, leaving his favorite horse and body servant to Washington. Of 1,460 men in the battle, 456 were killed and 421 wounded; 63 out of 89 commissioned officers were killed or injured, and every field officer. The enemy's casualties were about 60. The entire borders were left defenseless and desolated by a fearful Indian war.

Brad'don, Mary Elizabeth (MRS. MAXWELL), English novelist: b. London, 1837, daughter of a solicitor there. She received her education at home, and early showed signs of literary power. After publishing some poems and tales, in 1862 she brought out Lady Audley's Secret,' which was almost instantly popular and the first of a long series of clever sensational novels, among which may be mentioned Aurora Floyd (1862); John Marchmont's Legacy' (1863); Eleanor's Victory' (1863); Henry Dunbar (1864); 'Dead Sea Fruit' (1869); 'Dead Men's Shoes'; 'Rupert Godwin' (1869); 'Hostages to Fortune' (1875); 'Ishmael' (1884); The Fatal Three' (1888); The Venetians (1892); Thou Art the Man' (1894); 'Sons of Fire' (1895); London Pride' (1896); 'Under Love's Rule' (1897); 'In High Places' (1898); Rough Justice' (1898); 'His Darling Son (1899); The Infidel' (1900); The Conflict' (1903). She conducted the London magazine 'Belgravia' for some time, and some of her stories first appeared there. Her later works do not rely so much on sensational effects for their success as her earlier ones. In all she has published over 60 novels. She is the widow of John Maxwell, a well-known publisher.

Brad'ford, Alden, American historian and journalist: b. Duxbury, Mass., 19 Nov. 1765; d. Boston, 26 Oct. 1843. Originally a Congregational minister he became secretary of State of Massachusetts (1812-24), and editor of the Boston Gazette (1826). He wrote History of Massachusetts, 1764-1820'; 'History of the Federal Government'; 'Life of Jonathan Mayhew (1838); New England Chronology) (1843).

Bradford, Amory Howe, American clergyman and author: b. Granby, Oswego County, N. Y., 14 April 1846. He was graduated at Hamilton College 1867, Andover Theological Seminary 1870; studied at Oxford University, England, and became pastor of the First Congregational Church, Montclair, N. J., in the year last named. He has written: 'Spirit and Life' (1888); Old Wine, New Bottles' (1892); The Pilgrim in Old England' (1893): 'Heredity and Christian Problems' (1895); (The Growing Revelation' (1897); Art of Living Alone' (1809) The Return to Christ' (1900); 'Age of Faith (1900); (Spiritual Lessons From the Brownings (1900); Ascent of the Soul' (1902).

Bradford, Andrew, American printer, son of William Bradford (1663-1752) (q.v.): b. Philadelphia about 1686; d. 23 Nov. 1742. He was the only printer in Pennsylvania from 1712 to 1723. He published the first newspaper in Philadelphia, 22 Dec. 1719, called the American

Weekly Mercury. It was by him that Benjamin Franklin was first employed, on his arrival in Philadelphia in 1723. In 1732 he was postmaster; in 1735 he kept a book store at the sign of the Bible in Second Street. In 1738 he removed to No. 8 South Front Street, to a house which in 1810 was occupied as a printing house by his descendant, Thomas Bradford, publisher of the True American.'

Bradford, Gamaliel, American writer and politician: b. Boston, Mass., 15 Jan. 1831. He has been prominent in politics as an independent, being a strong opponent of the Philippine policy of the administration, and is the author of 'Lesson of Popular Government' (1898); Types of American Character.'

Bradford, John, Protestant martyr and theologian: b. Manchester about 1510; d. Smithfield, London, 1 July 1555. He obtained a situation in the commissariat, and having been guilty of some defalcation, known only to himself, was so impressed by a sermon of Latimer on restitution, that he determined not only to sell everything he had in order to make up the defalcation, but to renounce an employment which exposed him to dangerous temptations. He afterward studied at Cambridge, where he received the degree of M.A., and on taking orders was appointed chaplain to the Bishop of London, and Canon of St. Paul's. From this time he devoted himself to the duties of his office with so much zeal and success that he became one of the most popular preachers of his day. In 1552 he was appointed chaplain to Edward VI., but under the reign of Queen Mary became a marked man. On the charge of preaching sedition he was committed to the Tower (occupying the same room with Ridley, Cranmer, and Latimer), and being brought to trial, was condemned to death as an obstinate heretic. His life is said to have been offered to him if he would only promise to refrain from preaching, but even this he had the manliness to refuse, and he was burned at the stake. A complete edition of his works, which include sermons, meditations, various treatises, etc., was published 1848-53.

Bradford, Joseph, American journalist and dramatic author: b. near Nashville, Tenn., 24 Oct. 1843; d. Boston, Mass., 13 April 1886. His real name was WILLIAM RANDOLPH HUNTER. Besides satirical verses he wrote a number

of poems which were highly esteemed, especially those on the death of Victor Hugo and of Gen. Grant. His plays, 'Our Bachelors,' and 'One of the Finest,' were very successful and are still popular.

Bradford, Royal Bird, American naval officer: b. Turner, Me., 22 July 1844. He was graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1865 and received promotion through various grades to the rank of commander. He has made a specialty of equipment, and since 1897 has been chief of the Bureau of Equipment at the Navy Department in Washington.

Bradford, William, American colonial governor and author: b. Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, 1590; d. Plymouth, 9 May 1657. He was one of the signers of the celebrated compact on the Mayflower; and, in 1621, on the death of the first governor, John Carver, was elected to the same office, which he continued to fill (with the exception of a brief

In

period when he declined re-election) until his death. His administration was remarkably efficient and successful, especially in dealing with the Indians. One of his first acts was to adopt measures to confirm the league with the Indian sachem Massasoit. In the beginning of 1622, when the colony was subjected to a distressing famine, a threatening message was received from the sachem of Narragansett in the form of a bundle of arrows bound with the skin of a serpent. The governor sent back the skin filled with powder and ball. This decisive reply finished the correspondence. The Narragansetts were so terrified, that they returned the skin without even inspecting its contents. return for his kindness and attentions to Massasoit in a dangerous illness, the sachem disclosed to the colony a dangerous conspiracy among the Indians, and it was suppressed. His 'Diary of Occurrences, covering the first year of the colony, was published in 1622. He left a number of religious compositions in verse; and historical prose writings of great value, the most important being his History of the Plymouth Plantation from the formation of the society in England, in 1602, down to 1647. This disappeared during the American Revolution, but was found in the library of Fulham Palace, England in 1858, and in 1898 was returned to the United States and placed among the archives of Massachusetts. The shorter writings of Bradford will be found in Young's 'Chronicles of the Pilgrims' (1841). See Cotton Mather, 'Magnolia for life of Bradford; also Tyler, 'History of American Literature) (1898); Walker, 'Ten New England Leaders' (1901).

Bradford, William, the first printer in Pennsylvania: b. Leicester, England, 20 May 1663; d. New York, 23 May 1752. Being a Quaker, he emigrated in 1682 or 1683, and landed where Philadelphia was afterward built, before a house was begun. In 1687 he printed an almanac. The writings of George Keith, which he printed, having caused a quarrel among the Quakers, he was arrested in 1692 and imprisoned for libel. On his trial, when the justice charged the jury to find only the fact as to the printing, Bradford maintained that they were to find also whether the paper was really seditious, and that "the jury are judges in law as well as the matter of fact." He was not convicted, but having incurred the displeasure of the dominant party in Philadelphia, he removed to New York in 1693. In that year he printed the laws of the colony. On 16 Oct. 1725, he began the first newspaper in New York, called the New York Gazette. In 1728 he established a paper mill at Elizabethtown, N. J. Being temperate and active, he reached great age without sickness, and walked about on the very day of his death. For more than 50 years he was printer to the government of New York, and for 30 years the only one in the province.

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Bradford, William, American jurist, attorney-general of the United States: b. Philadelphia, 14 Sept. 1755; d. 23 Aug. 1795. He was graduated at Princeton College in 1772, and commenced the study of the law. In the spring of 1776, upon the breaking out of the war with Great Britain, he joined the militia, in which he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In consequence of ill-health he was obliged to

resign at the end of two years, and was admitted to the bar in Philadelphia in 1779. In 1780 he was appointed attorney-general of Pennsylvania. Under the new Constitution he was appointed a judge of the supreme court 22 Aug. 1791. Upon the promotion of Edmund Randolph to the office of secretary of state he received from Washington the appointment of attorney-general of the United States 28 Jan. 1794. In early life he wrote some pastoral poems in imitation of Shenstone; but his principal production was an Inquiry how far the Punishment of Death is necessary in Pennsylvania.'

Bradford, William, American painter: b. New Bedford, Mass., 1827; d. New York, 25 April 1892. He entered business early in life, but abandoned it for art. the ice fields of the North Atlantic, and well His subjects were known works of his include Steamer Panther in Melville Bay under the Light of the Midnight Sun'; Crushed by Icebergs'; 'Arctic Wreckers); 'Land of the Midnight Sun'; and 'Sunset

in the North.'

Bradford, English manufacturing city, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, eight miles west of Leeds. It is pleasantly situated on a feeder of the Aire, at the junction of three extensive valleys, and consists of an ancient and a more modern portion, the latter with spacious, wellbuilt streets. The appearance of the town has been almost completely changed since 1861, the corporation having, at a great expenditure of money, effected most extensive street improvements, widening the principal thoroughfares, improving the gradients, and opening up new

streets.

Spacious covered markets have been erected at a great cost. Among the public buildings are the town-hall (1873), in French Gothic style; St. George's Hall, erected in 1851, and capable of accommodating about 5,000 persons; an exchange, containing a statue of Cobden; a temperance hall; a mechanics' hall, with lecture rooms and library; a technical college, opened in 1882; free library (1872). The schools include the free grammar-school, endowed by Charles II., the girls' grammar-school, and the board schools. In Airedale College young men are trained for the ministry among the Independents. Among the charitable institutions may be noticed the infirmary, the eye and ear hospital, the children's hospital, St. Catharine's Home, an institution for the blind, and alms-houses. There is a fever hospital, to which patients are admitted at moderate charges, and when persons are too poor to pay, the corporation bears the cost. There is also a smallpox hospital. Bradford has several public parks, some of them finely laid out, besides Baildon Moor (600 acres) reserved for recreation purposes. There is an extensive system of waterworks by gravitation, and water, gas, and electric supply undertakings are owned by the municipality. The worsted yarn and stuff trade is the principal industry; there are also alpaca and mohair manufactures (with which Sir Titus Salt's name is connected), manufactures of silk and velvet (the Manningham Mills of Lister & Company), mixed cotton and silk goods; and some cotton factories. In the neighborhood are quarries and iron-works. The town was incorporated in 1847, and its affairs are managed by a mayor, 21 aldermen, and 63 councilors. It was accorded the rank of a city in