matically adapt itself to any changes of speed in the movement of the clay bar. The bar of clay is supported on the bottom face and at one side thus ensuring a smooth sharp cut. The slit through which the wire passes is just wide enough to accommodate the thickness of the wire used. The two vertical side-plates (b) are hinged so that they will open outward if a stone or other hard substance is pushed against them by the cutting wire, and after expelling the same return instantly to the normal position of support. The measuring wheel is of a given diameter for each thickness of brick, thus requiring a change of the wheel if a change in the size of the brick is desired. Such a change is generally accomplished in about half an hour. Recent improvements have developed cutters that enable manufacturers of paving bricks, to make "builders" and "pavers" simultaneously. For example, two bricks out of every six cut at each revolution of the cutter may be 2 inches thick, and the other four 4 inches thick, or any other combination that may be desired. The adjustable variations in thickness are by graduations of sixteenths of an inch, and the scope of the cutter runs from bricks 2 inches thick to blocks 5 inches in thickness. The large ring (c) is turned with a 2-inch V groove in its outer edge, and is supported by the two smaller wheels (d) engaging in the groove so that the weight of the larger wheel is entirely supported by them, thus relieving the cutting wires from all strains other than that due to the cutting of the bricks. The looped wires (e) are about 12 inches long, and are attached to tempered steel springs which while keeping the wires taut, yet permit a necessary amount of flexibility. A wiper, not shown in the illustration, automatically cleans the wires between each cut. The slow motion of seventeen turns per minute of the cutting reel, cuts one hundred bricks per minute, and may be operated to cut twice that number with perfect safety.

An auger machine equipped with the side-cut device of the type described has a capacity of about 50,000 bricks per day.

FIG. 4.- Board Delivery Cutting Table.

Of the various forms of cutting devices, the delivery cutting table may be described as a general third type. (See Fig. 4.) This table cuts 12 bricks at a time, automatically drawing a smooth board under the bricks as they are cut. The upper portion of the table travels forwards upon a track while the wires are being drawn through the bar of clay, thus compensating for its forward motion, while a' slight pressure upon the lever during its return stroke brings the table to its original position and places the board loaded with bricks ready for removal.

The apparatus weighs about 900 pounds, and measures about 9 feet in length, including hand lever in operating position. Modifications of this table are employed for cutting chimney blocks and hollow ware of large section. Diagrams (a), (b), (c) of Fig. 4, illustrate in the order given, the operation of the device - (a) beginning of cut, (b) end of cut, (c) delivery of the bricks.

Automatic indenting cutters are employed to produce round edged bricks or blocks for street paving purposes. It appears to be a matter of some controversy as to whether any advantage other than the rounding of corners or edges is gained by the practice of repressing bricks for paving purposes. It is the general opinion that repressing breaks the original bond formed between the particles in molding the material into shape in the brick machine and fails to establish a new bond equally as good. The automatic indenting cutter is calculated to do away with the repress in this particular class of bricks.

To facilitate the handling of bricks in their green condition and to prepare them for the drying and burning processes, various appliances are employed which ensure more or less economy in time and labor. The brick-edger is an attachment, 5 feet 8 inches long, which may be placed on end-cut brick machines to automatically turn the bricks on edge as they are being transferred to the off-bearing belt. Such an attachment will save the labor of one man on an output of 30,000 bricks per day.

The pallet carrier is from 16 to 32 feet in length, and is employed to facilitate the transfer of the bricks from the off-bearing belt to pallets of either wood or metal. If the clay worked is somewhat soft, so that the resulting bricks will not bear piling up on each other without defacement, pallets, each holding about eight bricks on edge may be used, and the bricks dried in this position in cars or in racks under the drying sheds.

The head-sander and brusher is a device, which in connection with a regular brick machine, is employed to produce head-sanded stretcher or stock-bricks. It consists of a continually moving belt carrying a series of angleiron supporting pieces, corresponding in length to the bricks. The operator stands at the head of the head-sander and close to the automatic cut-off, and transfers to the supporting pieces on the belt only those bricks which are free from stone or other disfigurement. The bricks thus guided and supported, are carried by the belt between two pairs of revolving circular brushes. Dry sand in a box is kept constantly against the faces of these brushes, so that when they revolve against the horizontal motion of the bricks, the sand is brushed into both heads of each brick, thus producing a stiff-tempered endcut brick with sanded faces and heads, so that the heads burn the same color as the faces. The capacity of the machine is about twenty-five bricks per minute, and it may also be used to sand bricks that are intended for repressing.

Repressing is a process employed to produce bricks suitable for fronts of buildings, ornamental tablets and corner pieces with designs in relief, or intaglio, and other shapes of any desired design. The great many varieties of ma

chines used for this purpose are called presses, and are operated either by steam or hand power. The hand press shown in Fig. 5, is equipped with a very powerful lever, and has a steel-lined box with a top-plate and plunger faced with

FIG. 5.- Hand-brick Repress.

steel, conveniently arranged for refitting when ever necessary. It weighs about 900 pounds; occupies floor space 20 inches by 3 feet 6 inches, exclusive of the lever, and may be readily moved upon the rollers under the forward end, from place to place about the works.

Power represses are made with one or two sets of plungers or pressure shafts, and are built with a capacity to exert pressures up to 45,000 pounds. A machine with two sets of plungers working against the mold-box, has a repressing capacity of 15,000 fine front bricks, or 20,000 street pavers per day.

FIG. 6.- Power Repress.

Fig. 6 shows a repress in which a single plunger acts against the molding die, the pressure of the brick being taken on a solid base instead of a moving cam or plunger. It is capable of being readily adjusted to any thickness of brick, and the pressure can be regulated by the hand-wheel on the top of the plunger or

shaft. Various kinds of dies can be used, and these changed with very little loss of time. Roman, Norman, or Pompeiian brick can be pressed upon it as well as the smaller sizes, also a great variety of ornamental brick, shape brick, and tiles. It has an estimated weight of about 7,000 pounds; is equipped with a friction-clutch pulley 36 inches diameter, 8-inch face, which in operation runs at the rate of about 80 revolutions per minute, and is capable of turning out about 28,000 standard size bricks per day.

The dimensions adopted by the National Brick Manufacturers' Association in the United States, for standard hard-burnt common building brick, are 84 x 4 x 24 inches, and for a pressed front brick, 83% x 4 x 23% inches. All modern brick machines are capable of producing bricks of these sizes. See BRICK; CLAY-WORKING MACHINERY; KILNS; PIPE, MANUFACTURE W. MOREY, JR.,

OF.

Consulting Engineer, New York. Bricks Without Straw, a novel by Albion W. Tourgée, containing a modern application of the Biblical phrase. The words are an allusion to the darkest days of the Hebrew bondage in Egypt, when the toilers were ordered to furnish their own straw without diminishing the number of bricks produced in a given time. Bridal Wreath. See SPIRÆA. Bride, Saint. See BRIDGET.

Bride and Bridegroom, words of AngloSaxon origin applied from very early times to a newly married wife and husband, the more comIt has been usual from the earliest period of mon form at present being bride and groom. antiquity to pay especial honors to a bride and groom, and in every age and among every people, the wedding-day has been devoted to joyous and solemn ceremonies. It was celebrated among the Athenians by offerings made in the morning to particular divinities, to Zeus and Hera, and especially to Artemis, who was thought to look with disfavor upon marriages. At nightfall she was conducted to the bridegroom's house, in a chariot drawn by a pair of mules, and furnished with a kind of couch, on which she sat between her husband and one of his nearest friends. The bridal procession moved on, greeted and accompanied by friends bearing nuptial torches and singing songs. Then followed the marriage feast, to which, contrary to the usual Greek practice, women as well as men were invited; and at its close the bride was conducted by the bridegroom to her apartment, where a law of Solon required that they should eat a quince together. On the day after the marriage, presents were made to the newly married couple by their friends. Among the Romans the same custom prevailed, in memory of the rape of the Sabines. The wedding day was fixed, at least in early times, by consulting the auspices. The Roman marriage was usually, though not always, unattended by religious rites. The bride was conducted to the house of the bridegroom by a procession and bore in her own hands the emblems of diligence, a distaff and a spindle with wool. The bridegroom received her within with fire and water, a symbol, perhaps, of purification, and the ceremonies of the day were concluded by a repast given to friends and relatives. The bridal

apartment, to which she was conducted by matrons who had not had more than one husband, was magnificently decked with flowers, and minstrels and friends sang without during the night. In the days of our ancestors various ceremonies, often "more honored in the breach than the observance," were followed. The bride undressed and put to bed by the bridemaids, and the bridegroom submitted to the same operation, at the hands of the groomsmen. Then the posset, a drink made of milk, wine, yolks of eggs, sugar, cinnamon, and nutmeg, had to be served. Then there was sometimes another dilatory proceeding in the sewing of the bride in a sheet. The arraying of the bride in white, the wedding feast, and the giving of presents are ancient customs. As early as the time of James I., the presents received by the bride of Sir Philip Herbert amounted in value to $12,500, a notable expenditure of the kind for those days, but frequently surpassed at the present time by the value of a single bridal gift. The bridal kiss is of unknown antiquity. The old missals, which date long before the "common prayer book," enjoined it as an essential part of the marriage ceremony. Moreover, it was always done in church. The priest, too, at one time, enjoyed the privilege of kissing the bride. Groomsmen claimed and took it for a long period. The ordinary accessories of the weddings of our days may mostly be traced to ancient times. The marriage ring probably encircled the finger of the wife of the first Pharaoh, and was certainly used in the Roman ceremonies under the emperors. Its heathen origin nearly led to its abolition by the Puritans of Cromwell's time. The wedding ring is always put and worn on the fourth finger of the left hand, because it was supposed in ancient times that an artery ran from this part directly to the heart. The bridecake is no less sanctified by antiquity than the ring. It is a symbol of plenty, and is intended to express the hope that the newly married pair may be always supplied with an abundance of the good things of this life. In ancient days wheat was sprinkled upon the head of the bride with the same intent. At present this custom is superseded by the scattering of rice upon the bride and groom as they leave the house after the reception. The throwing of an old shoe after the couple shows traces of an old superstition. Passing bits of the cake through the wedding ring nine times, and putting them under the pillow to dream upon, was a practice in vogue long before our great-grandmothers lived and loved. Putting up the slices in white paper boxes is an innovation of later times. Wine was an invariable accompaniment of all marriages, long before the marriage feast at Cana. In times past it was customary to drink it in the church, the priest having first blessed the cup, however, to suit it to the holiness of the place. The Jews universally hold to the custom of wine-drinking on the occasion of a marriage. After the bride and groom have drunk from the glass it is broken to remind them of mortality.

Modern custom lengthens out the privileges of bride and bridegroom beyond the wedding day. In former times, when the religious ceremony and the attendant festivities were over, all bridal honors ceased. These are now prolonged by the bridal tour. The term honeymoon, formerly applied to the first month of married life, is now more vaguely used and is sometimes

Bride of Lammermoor, The, by Sir Walter Scott, one of the group of Waverley Novels called Tales of my Landlord.' The scene is laid on the east coast of Scotland, in the year 1700. The hero is Edgar, Master of Ravenswood, a young man of noble family, penniless and proud. He has vowed vengeance against the present owner of the Ravenswood estates, Sir William Ashton, lord keeper, whom he considers guilty of fraud; but foregoes his plans on falling in love with Lucy, Sir William's daughter. There is a secret betrothal; the ambitious Lady Ashton endeavors to force her daughter to marry another suitor; and in the struggle Lucy goes mad, and Ravenswood, thinking himself rejected, comes to an untimely end. The most famous character in the book is the amusing Caleb Balderstone, the devoted old steward of Ravenswood, who endeavors constantly to save the family honor and to conceal his master's poverty by ingenious devices and lies, and whose name has become the symbol of "the constant service of the antique world." Though sombre and depressing, the Bride of Lammermoor) is very popular, and the plot has been used by Donizetti in the opera Lucia di Lammermoor.'

Bride of Messina, The, a tragedy by Schiller, based on Sophocles' Edipus Tyrannus.' It was brought out in 1803.

Bride of the Sea, a poetical name given to the city of Venice in allusion to the custom of wedding the Adriatic Sea with a ring. This picturesque ceremony was annually observed by the doges.

Bride'well, formerly a famous house of correction in Blackfriars, London. The name originally belonged to a well dedicated to St. Bride. Henry VIII. built on this site, in 1522, a palace for the accommodation of the Emperor Charles V., which became a residence of Wolsey, and under Edward VI. was, in 1553, converted into a workhouse for the poor, and a house of correction for the idle and vicious. Prisoners here were made to work during their confinement, as in most other houses of correction. From this, as one of the earliest houses of correction, there originated the generic term, "a bridewell"-a house of correction. It was governed by a keeper who was independent of the sheriff of London.

Bridge, Horatio, American naval officer: b. Augusta, Me., 8 April 1806; d. Athens, Pa., 18 March 1893. He graduated at Bowdoin College in the famous class of 1825, which included Longfellow, Hawthorne, J. S. C. Abbott, and G. B. Cheever. He was admitted to the bar in 1828, and for 10 years was in practice at Skowhegan and Augusta, Me. In 1838 he entered the United States navy as paymaster; made a cruise in the Cyane (1838-41); in the Saratoga upon the coast of Africa (1843-4), some account of which was published in 1845 under the title Journal of an African Cruiser, edited by his friend, Haw

thorne. In 1854 he was appointed chief of the bureau of provisions and clothing, the duties of which he performed for nearly 15 years, including the whole period of the war. In 1873 he was retired as pay-director with the relative rank of commodore. He wrote some valuable reminiscences, entitled 'Personal Recollections of Nathaniel Hawthorne) (1893).

Bridge, Sir John Frederick, English organist and composer: b. Oldbury, Worcestershire, 5 Dec. 1844. He was organist of Trinity Church. Windsor, Manchester Cathedral, and in 1875 became full organist of Westminster Abbey. He was also made professor of harmony at Owens College, Manchester, and afterward professor of harmony and counterpoint at the Royal College of Music. Among his works are the oratorio, Mount Moriah'; the cantata, 'Boadicea'; the cantata, Callirhoë); the oratorio, The Repentance of Nineveh'; etc. He has set many hymns to music, notably Gladstone's Latin version of Rock of Ages.'

Bridge, Joseph Cox, English musician: b. Rochester, England (brother J. F. Bridge, q.v.), 16 Aug. 1853. He studied under his brother and John Hopkins. From 1871-6 he was organist of Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1879 became organist of the Cathedral of Chester. The music-festival of that city owes its revival

to him. Most of his works are for church use. Among them are: a Magnificat, a Nunc Dimittis, and the oratorio 'Daniel.'

Bridge, a game of cards. In Turkey and Egypt it has been known for some time, but is played much more scientifically in England and the United States, where it was introduced in the last decade but one of the 19th century. It is played with one pack of cards, and the four players are styled the dealer, the leader, the dummy, and the pone. Bridge is allied to whist, and like that game is played in more than one way. See De La Rue, The Laws of Bridge' (1889); Foster, 'Bridge' (1901); Dunn, 'Bridge, and How to Play It' (1901); Steele, Simple Rules for Bridge' (1902).

Bridge, a structure supporting a roadway, designed to afford communication between the banks of a river or ravine, or to cross any open space. Bridges were formerly made of wood, brick, stone, or iron, but steel is now rapidly displacing these materials, except for the construction of bridges of minor impor

none

structed such bridges about 536 B.C., Darius Hystaspes about 490, and Xerxes about 480 B.C. Bridges of stone or brick seem to have been first used by the Romans; there were erected in Greece till after the Roman conquest. No people of the ancient world carried the power of rearing the stupendous arch and the magnificent dome to such an extent as the Romans, who are supposed, however, to have derived their first knowledge of the art from the Etruscans, and in the construction of stone bridges the highest rank must be conceded to this indefatigable people. The bridges of ancient Rome were eight in number. The first is said to have been one spanning the Tiber between the Janiculum and the Aventine Mountain, built by or under Ancus Martius, and famous for its defense by Horatius Cocles. One or two of these bridges are still standing; that called Ponte Fabricio having been built 62 B.C. One of the finest Roman examples was the bridge built by Augustus over the Narni, the vestiges of which still remain. It consisted of four

arches, the longest of 142 feet span and over 100 built by Trajan over the Danube, 115 A.D., and feet high. A still more remarkable bridge, 4.770 feet long, was destroyed by his successor Romans were not generally, however, distinHadrian. The most celebrated bridges of the guished by the extraordinary size of their arches or the peculiar lightness of their piers, but by their excellence and durability. The span or chord of their arches seldom exceeded 70 or 80 feet, and the versed sine or height was nearly half of the chord, so that they were mostly semicircular, or constituted a segment nearly of that form.

Among the most celebrated bridges built Subsequently to the destruction of the Roman empire are those of the Moors in Spain, who imitated and rivaled the best constructions of the Romans. The bridge of Cordova, over the Guadalquivir, is an eminent example of their success. The bridge over the Rhone at Avignon, begun in 1176, and now represented by a picturesque fragment, is one of the most ancient bridges of modern Europe. It was built by a society or order called the Frères Pontiers, or "Brethren of the Bridge." It was composed of 19 arches. The length of the chord of the largest was 110 feet 9 inches, and its height 45 feet 10 inches. Of the nations of modern Europe the French were among the first to carry the art of bridge-making to its present perfection. The constructions of Perronet, who was chief engineer of bridges and highways in France under Louis XV. and Louis XVI., have never been surpassed. Among them were the bridges of Nogent-sur-Seine (1766-9); Neuilly (1768-74); Louis XVI., at Paris (1787-92). The bridge at Neuilly consists of five arches, each 128 feet span and 32 feet rise.

In Great Britain the art of building bridges appears to have been introduced by the Romans. For special mention of celebrated stone bridges in the United Kingdom, see Stone Bridges, below.

Timber Bridges.- The oldest bridges on record were built of wood. The Sublician Bridge at Rome, referred to above as built by Ancus Martius, was built of timber about 621 B.C. Its destruction took place about 500 B.C.; but a Sublician Bridge was in existence many centuries after this. Another celebrated wooden