variegated fast prints are thus obtained. Loose pigment colors are basic colors thickened with starch or gum tragacanth only, and then steamed. Such prints do not even stand washing with cold water.

Turkey-red Style.- In this style use is made of the fact that turkey red is at once bleached by the action of chlorine. Plain dyed turkeyred calico is printed with tartaric acid, dried, and passed through a solution of bleachingpowder. In the printed parts chlorine gas is evolved, the red is destroyed, and a white discharge pattern is produced. A blue pattern results if Prussian blue is added to the printing mixture; yellow is obtained if a lead salt is added, and the fabric is afterward passed through bichromate of potash solution, whereby yellow chromate of lead is produced; green results from a mixture of the blue and yellow; black is printed direct. These and other discharge colors may also be obtained by other methods.

Indigo Style.- Of the numerous indigo styles in use it is only possible to refer to one or two of the most important. Indigo blue patterns on a white ground are obtained by printing a thickened mixture of finely-ground indigo and caustic soda on white calico, previously impregnated with glucose. A subsequent steaming reduces the indigo to indigo white, and causes it to penetrate the fibre, while a final washing oxidizes, regenerates, and fixes the color. A resist white pattern on a blue ground is obtained by first printing upon white calico a resist paste composed of gum or flour, China clay, sulphate of copper, etc. When the printed calico is dyed in the indigo vat the paste resists the entrance of the color, partly in a mechanical and partly in a chemical manner, hence the blue is only fixed in those parts which are unprotected by the paste, after the removal of which by washing, the white pattern appears. Various resist colors, as yellow, green, etc., are obtained by the addition of different chemicals to the paste and altering the after-processes. A discharge white pattern on a blue ground is obtained by printing on plain indigo-blue-dyed calico a solution of bichromate of potash thickened with gum, and then passing the fabric through a solution containing sulphuric and oxalic acids. During this passage there is liberated, in the printed parts only, chromic acid, which at once oxidizes and destroys the blue, producing the desired white pattern. Colored discharge patterns are produced similarly by employing albumen thickening instead of gum thickening, and adding to the printing mixture such pigments as are not affected by acids, for example, vermilion, chrome yellow, Guignet's green, etc.

Bronze Style.- Manganese brown or bronze is decolorized by reducing agents; hence white discharge patterns on a bronze ground are obtained by printing plain manganese-brown-dyed calico with a mixture of stannous chloride and oxalic acid, and then steaming. Colored discharge patterns are obtained if coloring matters are added to the printing mixture which are not affected by reducing-agents, or which even require stannous chloride as a mordant to develop the color, as Prussian blue, chrome yellow, Persian-berry yellow, Brazil-wood pink, safranine, acridine orange, etc.

Aniline Black Style.- Aniline black being a product of the oxidation of aniline, patterns in

this color on a white ground are obtained by printing a thickened solution of aniline hydrochloride containing the oxidizing agent, sodium chlorate, and a salt of copper or vanadium. When the printed fabric is slightly steamed or exposed to a moist, warm atmosphere, the impression, which is at first devoid of color, gradually becomes dark green, and this by a final treatment with an alkaline solution, soap, etc., changes at once to a rich black. The color is extremely fast to light, alkalis, acids, etc., and it is largely employed by the printer, both alone and in conjunction with dyed or steam colors. The development of the black during the ageing or oxidizing process occurs only in the presence of a mineral acid, hence resist whites are obtained by first printing the design on the white calico with thickened solutions of substances of an alkaline or reducing character, or salts of organic acids, as acetate of soda, and then printing or padding over all with the aniline black mixture, ageing, steaming, etc. Where the design is printed the alkalinity entirely prevents the development of the black. Pigment colors thickened with albumen, also certain benzidine colors, containing an admixture of chalk, acetate of soda, etc., are largely employed in this manner. These resist colors may also be printed immediately after the application of the aniline black mixture, before the development of the color by ageing.

Azo Color Style.- The so-called insoluble azo colors result from the interaction of an azo compound and a phenol. Two methods of printing based upon this principle are employed. One method is to print the design with a thickened solution of B-naphthol on the white calico, and then pass the fabric through a very cold solution of the azo compound (developing-bath), when the design at once appears in a color corazo compound employed. responding to the Another method is to print the design with a calico which has been previously impregnated thickened solution of the azo compound upon with a solution of sodium-naphthol and dried; in this case the color of the design is developed in the moment of impression. The necessary azo compounds are obtained by the action of nitrous acid, on salts of amido substances for for example, paranitraniline, naphthylamine nitrotoluidine, dianisidine, etc., each of which yields a distinct color, bright red, claret red, orange, blue, etc. The naphthol-prepared cloth and also the azo compounds are somewhat unstable, so that this style is not successfully printed without considerable The insoluble azo colors, also the direct or benzidine colors, are capable of furnishing discharge patterns, since, in common with the azo colors generally, they are readily decomposed and destroyed by reducing-agents. It suffices to print calico dyed with these colors, as benzopurpurine, chrysophenine, benzoazurine, Mikado brown, etc., with a mixture containing stannous acetate, zinc powder, or other similar reducing-agent, and then steam the printed fabric, to obtain white discharge patterns. If there be added to the printing mixture such mordants and coloring matters as are not affected by reducing-agents, for example, safranine, auramine, etc., a variety of colored discharges are obtained, exactly as in the bronze style. Many of the benzidine colors may also

care.

be printed direct on white calico to furnish color designs, but such prints are not particularly fast to washing.

Calicut, India, a seaport in the presidency of Madras, on the Malabar coast, six miles north of Beypur, in the midst of extensive palm groves. It is an important place, with various public offices and institutions, including courthouse, customs-house, lunatic asylum, Anglican, Lutheran, and Roman Catholic missions, municipal and other schools, barracks, lighthouse, etc. The town dates from the 13th century, and was the first port in India visited by Europeans. It was from the name of this place that the word calico was derived. Vasco da Gama visited it in 1498, and in 1510 Albuquerque wrecked the town. In 1766 Calicut was taken by Hyder Ali, and in 1790 it fell into the hands of the British. Cardamoms, teak, sandal-wood, pepper, and wax are the principal exports. Pop. (1901) 75,510.

California, principal Pacific coast State of United States (No. 31 in order of admission), bounded north by Oregon, south by Mexico (Lower California), east by Nevada and Arizona, west by Pacific Ocean. Extreme length about 800 miles, coast line 1,097 miles, greatest width about 270 miles. Area (No. 2 in United States) 158,360 square miles (2,380 water). Pop. (1900) (No. 21 in United States) 1,485,053 or 9.5 to square mile (No. 37 in density). Whites, 1,402,727.

Topography and Climate.- Its peculiar shape, determined no more by political than by natural delimitations, gives California a character unique among the States, climatically and economically. It has a climate all its own, and its boundaries include all that climate in North America. It is longest of the States; and, in proportion to its length, narrowest. It corresponds with an area which upon the Atlantic seaboard should run as far inland as does South Carolina, and as long coastwise as from Charleston to Boston. This in itself gives large range of climate by latitudes; but its topography and its colimitations greatly increase this range. Its peculiar projection or "leaning out" upon the Pacific; its enormous coast line (somewhat less than one fifth total coastline of the United States); and particularly its "exposure" to the west and south upon this great equalizer; its contact on the east with the "Great American Desert"; its huge mountain systems; and its orographic protection against the north, are all vital factors in determining its atmospheric temperament. While the Atlantic seaboard is made humid by the warm Gulf Stream, and is open to the north (its mountains being scattered, low, and well inland), California is screened from the Arctic air-currents by a vast Alpine range, almost unbroken in its whole length and with its lowest passes 50 per cent higher than the highest peak east of Colorado. The State has 120 peaks exceeding 8.000 feet; 41 exceeding 10,000 feet; and II exceeding 13,000 feet. From its northern boundary down to Point Concepcion, California is washed by the cold Kuro Siwo, or Japan current, swinging back from the Arctic; and the exposure is largely westerly. From this point southward, the exposure is more southerly, the Japan current is deflected far offshore, and the coast is sheltered by a long line of islands. Tempered on one side by an equable Vol. 3-26

ocean, on the other by 1,000 miles of arid lands, the climate of California is still_further differentiated by its mountain systems. Roughly speaking, it is all "under wall." Two huge cordilleras, inosculating at the north and south, form an almost complete circumvallation of the great agricultural region; while to the south, though the ranges are much broken down, there is something like a repetition of this pattern, on a much smaller scale; the whole forming something like an inverted figure 8. In their major loop, these ranges enclose one great central valley, practically level, of 18,000 square miles, or about the aggregate area of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Delaware,- screening it from the Arctic, and filtering the winds from sea and desert. This great rampart is broken down only at the Golden Gate, through which, in a mile-wide passage, the drainage of this enormous watershed reaches the sea. In their imperfect minor loop, there is a broken congeries of valleys aggregating an almost equal area, sheltered from the desert, but as a rule partially open toward the sea. To the east of the main wall lies a large but almost uninhabited area, strictly desert, and part of the great interior wastes. The inclination of the State to the west, and its consequent southern exposure, is indicated by the fact that despite its narrowness the extremes are three fourths as far apart in longitude as in latitude. The corner of San Bernardino County is nearly 500 miles more easterly than False Cape; while from Oregon to the Mexican line the north and south distance is about 655 miles.

The Coast Range, altitude 2,000 to 8,000 feet, rather closely follows the coast line from Oregon to Point Concepcion; south of which topographic hinge it so breaks down as to be relatively unimportant. The Sierra Nevada, proximately following the east line of the State, at an average distance of 50 to 100 miles therefrom, is "the largest and most interesting chain of mountains in the United States" (J. D. Whitney). Really part of the gigantic spine which extends from Lower California to Alaska, this range in California is 600 miles long and 75 to 100 miles wide-its base covering four times the area of Massachusetts. The snow-line averages about 30 miles wide. Its surpassing peak (Mt. Whitney, highest in the United States) is 14,522 feet (Langley). Its passes average 11,000 feet, the lowest being 9,000 feet, and the most used (Kearsarge) 12.000 feet. The western slope is gradual, averaging about 100 feet to the mile; its eastern slope 10 times as rapid, being by far the steepest general gradient in North America. At many points the fall is 10,000 feet in 10 miles; and from the highest peak in the United States one looks down nearly 15,000 feet into Death Valley, some 200 feet below sea-level. This vast granitic range is the most remarkable register of glacial action on the continent. Decapitated by "perhaps a vertical mile" (Muir) it is still the most Alpine cordillera in North America. It holds 1.500 glacial lakes-the lake line being at about 8,000 feet. Of small residual glaciers, Muir has counted 65 between 36° 30′′ and 39°. Its yosemites (including the famous one so-called, the Hetch-Hetchy, and minor ones) are famous among geologists as well as travelers — well-like valleys gouged deep in the granite by glaciers, and of scenery nowhere surpassed. The highest

water-fall in the world (the Pioneer, 3,270 feet) is in this region. Upon the huge moraines left by that continental incubus of ice grow the noblest coniferous forests in the world-greatest in variety of species, in density of merchantable lumber and in size, age, and beauty of trees. These forests cover 44,700 square miles (a larger area than the entire States of New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, and Maryland together). California is fifth in area of forests and second in stand of lumber (200,000,000,000 feet, exceeded only by Oregon with 225,000,000,000. Cut, 1900, 864,000 M.). Seven national forest reserves in the State cover 8,511,794 acres. The Big Tree (Sequoia Gigantea) is the largest and oldest of growing things on earth; averaging 275 feet high and 20 feet diameter. The largest reach over 325 feet high and 38 feet diameter, with an age of 5,000 years. Muir "never saw a Big Tree that had died a natural death." The other Sequoia (Sempervirens), or California redwood, covers an area of about 2,000 square miles. It is second only to the Big Tree in size, reaching 18 feet diameter; and like it is found nowhere else. It belongs to the Coast Range, as the Big Tree to the Sierra. It is almost exclusively used in California for sheathing. The immunity of a city like San Francisco from great fires, though windy, hill-built, and of "frame," is largely due to the non-inflammability of this redwood lumber. The sugar pine, the noblest pine yet discovered, reaches 245 feet high and 18 feet diameter; the yellow pine 220 feet high and 8 feet diameter; the Douglas spruce, king of spruces, 200 feet high, 6 feet diameter; the Libocedrus, or incense cedar, 150 feet high and 7 feet diameter; the white silver fir 200 feet high, 6 feet diameter; the "magnificent" silver fir 250 feet high and 5 feet diameter. The nut pine, or piñon, is a small and shabby tree, but of great economic importance in feeding the Indians; in a good year its crop of excellent nuts is enormous. These are often fed to horses instead of barley. There are many varieties of oaks (which reach great size); also maples, yews, birches, alders, sycamores, cottonwoods, aspens, madroños, etc. A California palm (Washingtonia) is native in mountain cañons along the southerly desert, and is now largely used for street ornamentation. Specimens planted by the Franciscans have reached a height of 80 feet. The flora of the State includes about 2,500 species, and is of great interest. In the great central valley in February or March one can travel 400 miles, treading flowers at every step; and as much is true in other parts of the State.

No other State contains a moiety of the vast number of exotic trees now in California. Fruit, ornamental, and shade trees from every country in the world have been acclimated here. Nearly 9,000.000 tropical fruit trees were bearing in 1900. Millions of "pepper-trees" (Molle) from Peru are used on streets, etc.; and of Australian eucalyptus, (introd. 1858), there are now over 10,000,000, including about 100 varieties for fuel and ornament. Setting 2,000,000 acres to orchard and other trees within a generation has partially balanced the deforestation by lumbermen.

The most striking meteorological feature of California is perhaps the ordering of its seasons,

of which it has practically but two, the wet and dry. The winter, or "rainy season," is approximately from late October to late April, with 15 to 25 rainy days, an annual precipitation ranging from 23.53 inches for San Francisco (and far greater in the extreme north) to 14.56 inches for Los Angeles, and 10 for San Diego. For six months after I May, rain is practically unknown, except showers in the high mountain regions. In the high Sierra the winter precipitation takes form of snow, with an annual fall of 30 to 50 feet, thus supplying the natural reservoirs which feed the streams, upon irrigation from which agriculture largely depends. But in Oregon, which bounds California on the north, we have the familiar eastern seasons; and again in Arizona and Nevada, abutting upon the east, winter snow and summer rains characterize the meteorology. Thus, climatically, California differs altogether from all its neighbors, and has well been called an "Island on Land." Within its own limits, also, it has extraordinary range of climates, as it were in strata, following the topographic contours. Thus in the vicinity of Los Angeles it is possible at times to take a sleigh-ride within 12 miles of the city on one side (and looking down upon blossoming orange groves not five miles distant), and by an hour's ride to bathe in the Pacific, which has here a winter temperature of 60°. Within a short journey from almost any given point one may find almost any variety of climate, from below sea-level to nearly 15,000 feet above it; from the extreme but arid and non-prostrating heat of the desert to eterna! snow; from palms and perennial roses to the primeval coniferous forests, or to the desolation of alkaline Saharas. Although all Califor nia shares the seasonal peculiarity of "California climate," the northern and southern parts of the State-roughly dividing at Point Concepcion and the Tehachepi Range-are very unlike meteorologically. The upper portion is relatively humid, with more than twice the average rainfall, with far larger streams and vastly richer forestation. At Crescent City, on the far north coast, precipitation often reaches 80 inches per year. The trend of the coast is here northerly, and the region shares something of the extraordinary humidity of Oregon. The smallest precipitation is in the desert southeast corner, averaging only three inches annually at Yuma. The seven counties habitually termed "Southern California” — though the geographic southern half of the State would include 13 counties-have an average rainfall of but about 15 inches. This precipitation is insufficient to insure crops, except cereals (which are not irrigated but depend on the rains). This broad difference between the two sections in rainfall has been chief factor in an extraordinary difference of development within the last 15 years. Compelled by aridity to resort to irrigation; compelled by the magnitude of this task to associative effort, the southern communities have suddenly developed a generic type of agriculture and of life quite unlike anything else in the Union. The paragraph on population shows something of the disproportionate settling-up of the southern end of the State-an entire reversal of the balance which obtained for nearly 40 years, during which the population was overwhelmingly about the Bay, and San Francisco