CALANUS

and was rector of the College of San Ildefonso in Lima. He wrote 'Crónica moralizada del Orden de S. Agustin en Peru,' first printed at Barcelona in 1638 in folio, which is an important source for early Peruvian history. It was continued in a second volume, never completed, however, by Fray Diego de Cordova (Lima 1653). The first volume was translated into French as 'Histoire de l' Eglise du Perou aux Antipodes (Toulouse 1653), and Brulius' 'Historia Peruana (Antwerp 1651) is called a translation. The Spanish bibliographer Antonio credits Calancha with another work. De immaculatæ Virginis Mariæ conceptionis certitudine) (Lima 1629), but had not seen a copy. Brunet merely quotes Antonio on this point.

Cal'anus, Indian philosopher, much esteemed by Alexander the Great. At the age of 73. 323 B.C., being seized with illness at Persepolis, he caused a funeral pile to be erected, which he ascended with a composed countenance, and expired in the flames, saying, that having lost his health and seen Alexander, life had no more charms for him.

his sons.

Calas, Jean, zhon kä-las, or kä-la, French judicial martyr: b. Languedoc, 1698; d. Toulouse, 9 March 1762. Brought up in the Protestant religion, he had established himself as a merchant in Toulouse. He had four sons and two daughters whom he educated himself, and was held in general esteem, when he was suddenly accused of the crime of murdering one of In 1761 his eldest son, Marc Antoine, a young man of irregular habits and a gloomy disposition, was found strangled in his father's house. It was reported that the unfortunate youth had been put to death by his father because he wished to become a Catholic. Jean Calas and his whole family were arrested, and a prosecution instituted against him, in support of which numerous witnesses came forward. The parliament of Toulouse condemned him, by eight voices against five, to be tortured and then broken on the wheel; and on 9 March 1762, the sentence was executed. He suffered the torture with firmness, and protested his innocence to the last. The youngest son was banished forever, but the mother and servant were acquitted. The family of the unhappy man retired to Geneva. Voltaire, then at Ferney, became acquainted with them, and for three years exerted himself to defend the memory of Calas, and to direct attention to the defects of the criminal law. The widow and children of Calas also solicited a revision of the trial. Fifty judges once more examined the circumstances, and declared Calas altogether innocent, 9 March 1765. The king by his liberality sought to recompense the family for their undeserved losses, and people of the first rank emulated each other in endeavoring to relieve them. See Coquerel, 'Jean Calas et sa Famille) (1858).

Calasiao, ka-lä-se-ä'ō, Philippines, a town of the province of Pangasinan, situated in the western part of the island of Luzon, a few miles from the coast of the Gulf of Lingayen. Pop. (1898) 13.750.

Calatafimi, kä-la-tä-fe'mē, Sicily, town in the western part of the island, in the district of Trapani, and 21 miles east-southeast of the city of Trapani. It is situated in a mountainous district, near the river Gaggera, is badly built, and has a ruinous castle on the summit of a neigh

boring hill, now used as a prison. The environs are well cultivated and extremely fertile. In 1860 a battle took place here between Garibaldi's forces and Landi's Neapolitan troops, in which the latter were defeated. Pop. 10,964.

Calatagirone, käl-ta-je-rō'nā, or Caltagirone (ancient CALATA HIERONIS), Sicily, town in the province of, and 34 miles southwest of Catania. It stands on two hills, and consists generally of spacious, clean, and well-built streets. There is a fine promenade and marketplace, beside which stands the old castle. It is the see of a bishop, and has several churches and a college. Its inhabitants are said to be the best workmen in the island. It has a considerable commerce, and is celebrated for the manufacture of terra-cotta ware. It was fortified by the Saracens, and wrested from them by the Genoleges. Pop. about 34,000. Roger Guiscard gave it important privi

ese.

Calatayud, ka-lä-ta-yood', Spain, the second city of Aragon, 45 miles southwest of Saragossa. It stands on the Jalon, near its confluence with the Jiloca, at the foot of two rocky heights crowned with the ruins of Moorish forts. The upper or Moorish town is a very wretched place; but the modern town below is well built, and contains many remarkable edifices, among which the most conspicuous are the Church of Santa Maria, once a mosque, and surmounted by an octagonal tower; and that of St. Sepolcro, a Doric structure containing many curious relics. Red wines are produced in the neighborhood, and about 10 miles from the town there are sulphurous baths. The poet Martial was born at Bilbilis, a former town on the site of the present Bambola, two miles east of Calatayud. 11,055.

Pop.

Calatrava, kä-la-trä'va, Order of, a Spanish order of chivalry, originated during the Moorish wars. Calatrava la Vieja, taken from the Moors in the 12th century by the king of Castile, was committed to the Templars, who guarded it till 1158. At this time, a powerful army advancing to besiege it, they despaired of being able to defend it, and restored it to the king, who offered it in absolute property to whosoever would defend it. Two monks of the abbey of Citeaux (Cistercians), in France, preThey sented themselves and were accepted. preached a crusade, and offered a pardon of sins, and being supplied with money and arms, were able to repel the invaders. Thereupon, having received the investiture of the town and other donations, they instituted the same year (1158) an order into which all the nobility of Castile and Navarre were emulous to enter. In 1164 the chevaliers of this order, by sanction of Pope Alexander III., separated themselves from the monks, and the order became purely military. They still followed the rule of the Cistercians, until Paul III. dispensed them from the vow of chastity. The almost uniform success of the Knights of Calatrava against the Moors gave rise to rashness, and in 1197 they were defeated and nearly exterminated, the survivors transferring the seat to the castle of Salvatierra. In 1523 the grandmastership was transferred to the crown by a papal bull, the knights being permitted to marry once by way of compensation for their loss of independence. Since 1808 the body has been continued as an order of merit.

Calatrava la Viega, kä-la-trā'va la vē-a'ha, a ruined city of Spain, situated on the Guadiana, about 12 miles northeast of Ciudad Real. Its defense against the Moors, undertaken by Raymond, abbot of Fitero, and Diego Velasquez in 1158, after it had been abandoned by the Templars, is famous on account of its having originated the Order of Calatrava (q.v.) in 1158.

Calaveras, kǎl-a-vā'ras, a river of California, rises among the hills at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, in Calaveras County, and after a westerly and southwesterly course joins the San Joaquin River, a few miles below Stockton.

Calaveras Grove, the most northern of the California groves of big trees, containing about 100 of these trees. The tallest one standing is known as the "Keystone State," and is 325 feet in height and 45 feet in girth; the "Mother of the Forest" is another tree of notable size, being 315 feet high and 61 feet in circumference. The grove is a State reservation.

Calaverite, a native gold telluride, AuTe2. It was originally described by Genth as a very rare massive gold (and silver) telluride from Boulder County, Col. It is now the commonest of the god ores of Cripple Creek and occurs there in beautiful triclinic crystals. It is often confused with "sylvanite" by the miners. It has a bri liant metallic lustre, pale bronze-yellow color, a hardness of 3, and a specific gravity of about 9. Calc-tula, a variety of calcite essentially travertine. It is formed in small streams by the deposit of calcium carbonate in a cellular form. It often contains fossil twigs, moss, leaves, seeds, etc.

Calcaire, Grossier, käl-car grō-se-a, a chief type of the Eocene Tertiary series of the Paris and London basins. Its limestone strata furnish building material for the city of Paris. The fossils of the Calcaire Grossier are remarkable for number, and for the variety of forms, rising up to the mammalia.

Calcar, or Kalkar, Jan Stephanus van, yän stě-fän'us vän käl kår, Dutch painter: b. Calcar in Cleves, 1499; d. Naples, 1546. He studied so thoroughly the works of Titian, that their pictures cannot always be distinguished. The Mater Dolorosa,' in the Boisserée collection in Stuttgart, a perfect work of art, is by him. Another small picture of his, the Infant Christ with the Shepherds,' was a favorite with Rubens. In this piece the light is represented as proceeding from the child. He designed almost all the portraits in Vasari's Lives, and the fig

ures for the anatomical work of Vesalius.

Calca'reous, a term applied to substances partaking of the nature of lime, or containing quantities of lime. Thus, we speak of calcareous waters, calcareous rocks, calcareous soils. Calcareous spar is calcite (q.v.). See also CALC-TUFA.

Calcasieu, käl'ka-shū, a river of Louisiana, rising in the western part of the State. It flows through the parish of the same name, and after a southerly course of about 200 miles enters the Gulf of Mexico through Lake Calcasieu.

Calcasieu Lake, situated in Calcasieu Parisii, about five miles from the Gulf of Mexico, is little more than an expansion of the river of the same name. Length, about 18 miles; greatest breadth, five or six miles.

Vol. 3-24

CALCINATION

Calceola'ria (Latin, calceolus, a little shoe, alluding to the form of the corolla), a genus of plants of the natural order Scrophulariacea, natives of South America, especially of Chile and Peru. They are characterized by having a corolla with a very short tube, with two lips, concave or shaped like a hood, the upper one very small, the under one greatly inflated. They are common as greenhouse or outdoor plants. These are upward of 60 species, of which about 20 are cultivated in the gardens of Europe, and The flowers their varieties are very numerous. of the indigenous species are white, yellow, and purple. They are greatly excelled in beauty by the cultivated varieties, which acquire numerous tints in these colors, and have besides on the lower part of the corolla, the part which bears the strictest resemblance to a shoe, large spots, or innumerable small points of a different color, which have a very graceful effect. They grow best in a rich, open, sandy garden mold, and are propagated by seeds or cuttings, the herbaceous kinds mostly by the former method.

Calchaqui, kal-chä'ke, a South American tribe formerly living in the northwestern part of Argentina. They were conquered by the Incas in the 15th century, and the ruins of their buildings and tombs indicate quite an advanced stage of civilization. They were visited by the Jesuit missionaries, but strongly opposed the inroads of the Spaniards. The tribe is now extinct and all record of their language is lost.

Calchas, kǎl'kas, a legendary priest and prophet of the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war, who foretold that Troy would not be subdued by them till the 10th year of the siege. He himself accompanied the Greek army to Troy. During the siege, the Greeks were attacked by a plague, and Calchas declared that it was the effect of Apollo's anger, because they had deprived his priest of his daughter Chryseis, whom Agamemnon had selected as his mistress. He counseled the Greeks to appease Apollo by restoring the damsel; and it was by his advice that they afterward built the wooden horse. There are various legends relating to his death.

Calciferous, a geologic term applied to the sandy limestones found in Pennsylvania, extending across New Jersey and New York to Canada, and known as the Beekmantown beds. An equivalent formation is found in the magnesium limestones of Iowa and Missouri.

Cal'cimine, a mixture of zinc-white, glue, water, and pigments, used to finish the plaster walls of buildings. See WHITEWASH.

Calcination, a term now used as practically equivalent to roasting or oxidation. It is derived from the Latin word calx, meaning quicklime, and received its present signification by extension from its original meaning of obtaining lime from limestone by the application of great heat. By calcination many substances are reduced to a friable condition, and freed from constituents capable of passing off in the form of gas or vapor. Thus various salts may be deprived of water of crystallization, and rendered amorphous in this way; the hydrated carbonate of magnesium is reduced to the pure oxide, known as calcined magnesia; limestone is converted into quicklime, etc. Calcination is usually the first process in the extraction of metals from their ores. The oxides of metals

produced by this process were formerly known as calxes, but this term is now disused. It depends on circumstances which oxide is obtained, if the metal, like lead, can form more than one. The weight of the total calx is equal of course to that of the metal and the oxygen with which it has combined, but the calx itself is specifically lighter than the metal. Platinum, gold, silver, and some other metals, are not affected in this way, and on this account they are called the noble metals. See COMBUSTION.

Cal'cite, -sit, a native carbonate of calcium, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system, and exhibiting hundreds of distinct crystals of general forms or "habits." The mineral also occurs massive, fibrous, granular, lameller, compact, earthy, stalactitic, nodular. Its typical crystals exhibit a very perfect cleavage, commonly splitting up, from a blow, into many small rhombohedrons. Pure crystals have a specific gravity of about 2.72, and a hardness of about 3, though the latter varies somewhat with the face of the crystal. Calcite may be transparent, translucent, or opaque, and in color may vary from white, or colorless, to black, also brown, violet, blue, green, yellow, and red. It exhibits the phenomenon of double refraction powerfully, and transparent crystals of it (called "Iceland spar" because first obtained from Iceland) are used in the manufacture of polarizing prisms. (See LIGHT.) Limestone, marble, and chalk are commonly classed as massive or cryptocrystalline varieties of calcite. Oolite (q.v.) is a granular limestone composed of

innumerable minute rounded concretions. Piso

lite is a similar variety in which the spheres are as large as peas. The stalactites and stalagmites of many caves (q.v.) are calcite. Mexican onyx, travertine, and calc-tufa (q.v.) are a few of the many other varieties of calcite. Varieties containing other metallic carbonates are known as baricalcite, strontianocalcite, ferrocalcite, etc. Calcite effervesces briskly even in cold acid. It occurs abundantly all over the world; especially choice specimens come from Germany, England, Mexico; Rossie, N. Y.; Joplin, Mo., and Lake Superior.

Calcite Group, in mineralogy, an important series of rhombohedral carbonates including calcite, dolomite, ankerite, magnesite, mesitite, siderite, rhodochrosite, smithsonite, and sphærocobaltite.

Cal'cium, a metallic element first obtained in the free state by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808. Its compounds are exceedingly abundant and

are

widely distributed. Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is familiar in the various forms of marble, chalk, limestone, and calcite. The sulphate, CaSO4, is also very common, and is perhaps best known in the form of gypsum, which contains two molecules of water, and therefore has the formula, CaSO, + 2H2O. Calcium phosphate also occurs in nature in considerable quantities, both in the form of fossilized bones and as apatite (q.v.), and its various modifications.

Metallic calcium may be obtained by the electrolysis of the fused chloride (which melts at a red heat), or by decomposing the iodide with metallic sodium. It has a light yellow color, has a hardness about equal to that of gold, and (according to most authorities) is very malleable and ductile. Its chemical symbol is Ca, its specific gravity is about 1.58, and its

atomic weight is 40.0 if O=16, or 39.7 if H=1. Perfectly dry air does not affect it at ordinary temperatures, but in moist air it becomes rapidly coated with the hydrate, Ca(OH)2. When strongly heated in air it burns with a yellow flame, taking up oxygen to form the oxide, CaO. It decomposes water rapidly, passing into the form of the hydrate, with evolution of hydrogen. It melts at a red heat, has a specific heat of about 0.169, and has an electrical resistance only about one twelfth of that of mercury.

In its chemical relations calcium is a dyad. It combines with almost every known acid, and yields a vast number of compounds, many of which are of great industrial value. Of these the best known are the carbonate, oxide, hydrate, chloride, sulphate, fluoride, carbide, and bisulphide, and the indefinite mixture of the chloride and hypochlorite known as bleachingpowder (q.v.).

The carbonate occurs native in large quantiIt is also commonly ties, as already noted. present in ground water as obtained from wells and springs. It is almost insoluble in pure water, but dissolves to a considerable extent when the water contains free carbon dioxide in solution. It is this compound that gives to water what is known as "temporary hardness." Upon boiling, the free carbon dioxide held in solution is expelled, and the lime carbonate is therefore precipitated also, so that the water loses that part of its hardness which is due to the presence of the carbonate. This effect is well illustrated, in regions where the soil is rich in limestone. by the crust of lime carbonate that is deposited upon the interior of household Calkettles that are used for heating water. cium carbonate also gives rise, in steam boilers, to troublesome deposits that keep the water out of contact with the metal plates, which often become overheated and seriously impaired in consequence. To prevent this action chemists often recommend the addition to the water in the boiler of a certain amount of ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac). This compound combines with the lime carbonate to form calcium chloride, which is exceedingly soluble, and ammonium carbonate, which is volatile, and therefore passes away with the steam. Beautiful as this process is in theory, it cannot be recommended for adoption in practice, because if the sal ammoniac is present in any excess it induces rapid corrosion of the boiler-plates. For a further discussion of boiler-scale, see SCALE.

When calcium carbonate (more familiarly known as carbonate of lime) is strongly heated in a current of air, it loses its carbon dioxide and becomes converted into a substance known to the chemist as calcium oxide CaO, and in the arts as quicklime, burnt lime, or simply lime. Pure calcium oxide (or lime) is a white, amorphous substance, extremely infusible, glowing with a dazzling white light when strongly heated, possessing caustic properties, and acting as a powerful chemical base. When treated with about one third of its own weight of water, lime passes into the form of the hydrate or hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, with the evolution of much heat. The process of converting it into the hydrate by the addition of water is called slaking, and the resulting hydrate is known in the arts as slaked lime. Mortar is composed of a mixture of slaked lime and sand, the silica (or sand) slowly combining with the lime to form a silicate after the