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called Sparti (the sowed), but who perished in contest with each other, excepting five. With the remainder he built the city of Cadmea or Thebes (see THEBES). He became by his marriage with Harmonia the father of Antinoe, Ino, Semele, Agave, and Polydorus. After ruling for a time the city which he had built, and the state which he had founded, he proceeded, at the command of Bacchus, with Harmonia to the Enchelæ, conquered their enemies, the Illyrians, became their king, and begat another son, Illyrius. Tradition states that Cadmus came to Boeotia from Phoenicia, 1550 B.C., conquered the inhabitants who opposed him, and, in conjunction with them, founded the above-mentioned city. To promote the improvement of his subjects he taught them the Phoenician alphabet, the employment of music at the festivals of the gods, besides the use of copper, etc. Another Cadmus, of Miletus, a son of Pandion, was regarded among the Greeks as the first who wrote in prose. He lived about 600 B.C.

Cado'gan, George Henry (5TH EARL), English statesman: b. Durham, 12 May 1840. He was educated at Christ College, Oxford, and entered Parliament as member for Bath in 1873, becoming under-secretary for war in 1875, and under-secretary for the colonies, 1878-80. He was lord privy seal, 1886-95, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1895-1902.

Cadol, Victor Edouard, vek-tōr ěd-oo-ärd ka-dōl, French dramatist: b. Paris 1831; d. 1898. He was long prominent as a journalist, being on the staff of 'Le Temps' and one of the founders of 'L' Esprit Francais. Among his very numerous works, many of which were written in collaboration, are 'Les ambitions of de M. Fauvel (1867); Thérèse Gervais (1893); L'arch duchesse (1897). A corrected edition of his dramas appeared in 1897 entitled

"Théâtre inédit.'

Cadoo'bergia Wood. See EBONY. Cadore, kä-do'ra, or Pieve di Cadore, a town of Italy, in the province and 22 miles north-northeast of the town of Belluno, on the Piave, derives its chief interest from being the birthplace of Titian.

Cadorna, Raffaele, räf-fä-ěl' kä-dôr-na, Italian general: b. Milan 1815; d. Turin 6 Feb. 1897. He served in the Crimean war, and in 1860 was made war minister in Tuscany's provisional government, and military commandant of Sicily in 1866. He suppressed the Bourbon insurrection in Palermo in the latter year, and in 1870 captured Rome and was its military governor for a time. In 1871 he entered the Italian Senate. He was the author of 'La liberazione di Roma nel 1870' (1889).

Cadoudal, Georges, zhorzh kä-doo-dal, French Chouan chief: b. Brittany, 1 Jan. 1769; d. Paris, 25 June 1804. In the protracted and sanguinary contests between the Royalists and Republicans during the French Revolution, the Chouans and Vendéans were the most resolute supporters of the Royal cause; and the energy and ability of Cadoudal soon raised him to an influential place among the adherents of the house of Bourbon. At this time attempts were made by Napoleon to gain over Cadoudal to the cause of the republic, and a lieutenantgeneralship in the army was offered as the price of his submission; but he firmly declined all these overtures. He afterward engaged, in con

cert with Gen. Pichegru and others, in a conspiracy having for its object the overthrow of the consular government and the restoration of the monarchy; which being discovered, Cadoudal was arrested, and executed. See CHOUANS.

Caduceus, ka-du'se-us, the staff considered as a symbol and attribute of the Greek god Hermes and the Roman god Mercury. It is generally represented as having two serpents twined around it in opposite directions, their heads confronting one another. It is probable that the staves carried by heralds and public criers gave rise to this fable, the fluttering ribbons or fillets tied to the end of the staff, or the green wreaths or boughs which were tied around it, giving the suggestion of the presence of living serpents. Several different fables were invented by late Greek writers to account for the serpents in a miraculous way. The fable tells that Apollo gave his staff to Mercury in consideration of his resigning to him the honor of inventing the lyre. As Mercury entered Arcadia with this wand in his hand he saw two serpents fighting together; he threw the staff between them, and they immediately wound themselves around it in friendly union. The caduceus is Mercury's peculiar mark of distinction. With this he conducted the shades to the lower world, and from it received the name of Caducifer; yet we find it on ancient coins in the hands of Bacchus, Hercules, Ceres, Venus, and Anubis. Among the moderns it serves principally as an emblem of commerce.

ican lawyer and soldier: b. Philadelphia, 1804; Cadwalader, kãd-wŏl'ă-der, George, Amerd. there, 3 Feb. 1879. He practised law till 1846; was made brigadier-general of volunteers; and won distinction at Chapultepec. He resumed his law practice till 1861; became majorgeneral of State volunteers; was placed in command at Baltimore; accompanied Patterson's expedition to Winchester (1861); and, as one of a military board, directed the United States army operations.

Cadwalader, John, American soldier: b. Philadelphia, 10 Jan. 1742; d. Shrewsbury, Pa., 10 Feb. 1786. At the outbreak of the Revolution he was placed in command of a battalion and soon became brigadier-general. He fought at Trenton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. In 1777 he organized the militia of eastern Maryland. In 1778 he challenged and wounded Thomas Conway for plotting against Washington. His daughter became, in 1800, the wife of Lord Erskine.

Cæcilian, se-sil'i-an, a member of a family of batrachians, the Cæciliida, regarded as forming an order, called Apoda, or Gymnophiona. They are long, worm-like animals, lacking all traces of limbs, and having only a rudiment of a tail. There may be as many as 250 vertebræ. The hinder end is blunt and hardly to be distinguished from the head. The body is covered with a soft, moist skin, and the jaws are armed with rather feeble teeth. These animals are found in the tropical parts of America, Africa, and Asia, where they burrow like earthworms, which they resemble. They are often found in the nests of ants, which they devour. They also feed on worms. The breeding habits of these creatures are very interesting, but are not well understood. The eggs are laid either

than the modern chevrotain of Java and had many archaic characters, the four-toed feet, short skull, and complete series of 44 teeth being the most remarkable. See RUMINANTS, FOSSIL. Caernarvon, kär-när'von. See CARNARVON. Cærula'rius, Michael, Greek ecclesiastic, the Patriarch of Constantinople, 1043-9. By dispensing with the Latin ritual in many churches of Bulgaria and protesting against the use of unleavened bread by the Latins in the Eucharist, he completed the division between the Latin and the Greek communions. He was formally excommunicated by Pope Leo IX.

Cæsalpinieæ, sès-ǎl-pin'i-ē, a subdivision of the natural order of plants Leguminosa, containing several genera. The botanical characteristics of the sub-order are: calyx in five divisions, joined together at different points, or often cleft to the base, with prefloration imbricated or valvular; petals equal or fewer in number; stamens often not symmetrical to the other parts of the flower, or very irregular, sometimes very numerous, sometimes partly abortive, rarely regular; very often free, or lightly joined together at the base only; ovaries raised on a free support, or joined in part to the calyx and becoming legumes, which sometimes contain only one single or double ovule, and of which the pericarp may have a fleshy consistence; seeds without perisperm; embryo often straight; stalk arborescent or fruticose, sometimes creeping; leaves simple, or more frequently compound; in the latter case frequently bipinnate. The typical genus is Casalpinia, to which belong the Brazil-wood, Sapan-wood, Nicaragua-wood, etc.

Cæsalpinus, Andreas, än'drã-as ses-al-pi'nus, or Andrea Cesalpino, Italian physiologist: b. Arezzo, Italy, 1519; d. 23 Feb. 1603. He is first mentioned in public life as a professor of botany in the University of Pisa. He was subsequently made chief physician to Clement VII., and lived during the remainder of his life at Rome. He published works upon botany, mineralogy, medicine, and the highest questions of philosophy. In his first publication, entitled 'Speculum Artis Medica Hypocraticum, his knowledge of the system of the circulation of the blood is stated in the clearest manner. The following passage is taken from the second chapter of its first book: "For in animals we see that the nutriment is carried through the veins to the heart as to a laboratory, and its last perfection being there attained, it is driven by the spirit which is begotten in the heart through the arteries and distributed to the whole body." The system accepted since the time of Harvey could hardly be more definitely or accurately stated. His philosophical speculations are contained mainly in his Quæstiones Peripateticæ. The philosophy of Casalpinus was scholastic Aristotelianism, with a leaning toward some of the methods and doctrines of the later transcendental or absolute systems. He reduces the world to the simplicity of two only substances, God and matter, and he makes all finite intelligences, all human, angelic, and demoniac souls, to belong to the latter element. Two things are remarkable about his system: (1) the boldness of speculation, unparalleled in his age, with which he seeks a purely scientific view of the universe; and (2) its entirely materialistic character. But

more important than either his anticipation of Harvey's discovery, or his speculative opinions, were his botanical labors. He was styled by Linnæus the first orthodox or systematic botanist, and his work on plants was a hand-book the time of Casalpinus was the popular witchto Linnæus in all his classifications. Botany in craft: as a science, it consisted in a mass of erudition about the imaginary but marvelous virtues of plants. Cæsalpinus sought successfully to transfer it from the realm of magic to that of science. He proposed the basis of classification upon which the whole system of Linnæus rests, namely, the distinction of plants in their parts of fructification. He lived quietly to an old age at Rome, submitting all his speculations to the supremacy of the Church, and presenting in his life an example of every virtue.

Cæsar, the name of a patrician family of the Julian gens, tracing its origin to Julius, the son of Æneas. The first member of the family who occurs in history with the surname of Cæsar was Sextus Julius Cæsar, prætor, 208 B.C. Cæsar was the family name of the first five Roman emperors. With Nero the imperial family became extinct (68 A.D.), and Cæsar became merely a title of dignity. The emperor, who bore the title of Augustus, appointed his successor, with the title of Cæsar. On medals and monuments we find the title Cæsar preceding the name of the emperor, as "Imp. Cæsar Nerva Trajanus Augustus," and following that of the designated successor, as "Marc. Aurel. Antonin. Cæsar." In the lower Greek empire, a new dignity of Sebastocrator was conferred, and that of Cæsar became the third rank in the state. From Cæsar are derived the German "kaiser" and the Russian "czar."

Cæsar, Gaius Julius, the greatest representative of the genius of Rome, a man of consummate ability alike as a general, a constructive statesman, and a writer. He was born, according to all the ancient authorities, 12 July 100 B.C., but Mommsen, in his History of Rome,' has made it probable that the year should be given as 102. Of purest patrician ancestry, and with a family tradition intimately associated with the rule of the senatorial oligarchy, he was yet, from early youth, a champion of the popular party. His aunt Julia had married Marius, and when, upon the latter's death in 86, Cinna became the leader of the Populares, Cæsar entered into intimate relations with him and in 83 married his daughter Cornelia. But the following year Sulla returned from the East and overwhelmed the foes of the senate. A reign of terror for the Marian party followed. With characteristic boldness, Cæsar refused to divorce his wife at the order of the dictator, and lost, in consequence, his property, his position as priest of Jupiter, and almost his life. The famous story that Sulla pardoned him with the remark that "he would one day be the ruin of the aristocracy, for in him there was many a Marius," though vouched for by both Suetonius and Plutarch, seems strikingly inconsistent with Sulla's usual remorseless logic. Partly to avoid further trouble, and partly to gain that military experience which was at Rome deemed a prerequisite to an official career, he now went to Asia, and, as a staff officer, served with distinguished bravery at the siege of Mytilene, and afterward against the pirates in Cilicia, but re

at Capua. At length, in January 40. the decisive step was taken. The senate ordered Cæsar to lay down his command on pain of being proclaimed a public enemy. The tribunes of the people, Antony and Quintus Cassius, who had in vain interposed their veto, fled to him for protection in their inviolable office, Cæsar with a single legion crossed the Rubicon, the frontier stream of Italy, and war was begun.

In the ensuing five years, all that remained for him of life, the amazing energy and resourcefulness of this extraordinary man are most impressively displayed. In three months, without striking a blow, he was master of Italy, and Pompey, with a small force, barely escaped from Brundisium across the Adriatic. Cæsar had no ships on which to follow him, and, besides, the veteran Pompeian forces in Spain must be crushed before they could join their commander. Accordingly, after first securing, through his lieutenants, Sicily and Sardinia, he crossed the Pyrenees into Spain, and, in a brief campaign of 40 days, perhaps the most brilliant in all his career, extricated himself from apparently certain destruction, and forced the surrender of the entire opposing army. All Spain now declared for him. On his way back he received the submission of Massilia (Marseilles), which had been besieged by Decimus Brutus and Trebonius. Eleven days were spent in Rome in administrative work, and early in January 48 he crossed the Adriatic and proceeded to invest Pompey, near Dyrrachium, now Durazzo. But his force was quite insufficient, and, to deprive his foe of the advantage of the sea, he retreated into Thessaly, whither Pompey followed him, and the decisive battle was fought on the plain of Pharsalus, 9 Aug. 48. Pompey had 47,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry; Cæsar only 22,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. But the latter's army was composed of veterans, and numbers did not avail. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was brutally murdered. Cæsar, who had followed him with all speed, was nearly trapped in Alexandria by the forces of the young king Ptolemy, but ultimately, upon the arrival of reinforcements, defeated them, and set Cleopatra upon the throne. He then passed through Syria and Asia Minor, putting affairs on a permanent basis, and incidentally defeating Pharnaces, a son of the great Mithridates. The victory was announced in the famous despatch, "Veni, vidi, vici» ("I came, I saw, I conquered"). Upon his return he announced his intention of pardoning all who had fought against him. In December he left Rome for Africa, where the campaign against the Pompeians, commanded by Scipio and Cato, ended in a sweeping victory at Thapsus, 6 April 46. Cato, unable to defend Utica, committed suicide. Cæsar returned to Rome in June, and, after celebrating his victories over the Gauls, Egyptians, Pharnaces, and Juba, king of Numidia, who had fought against him at Thapsus, by four magnificent triumphs, flung himself into the work of legislation. Among his reforms was the placing of the calendar, for the first time, upon a scientific basis. But these labors were interrupted by a dangerous revolt in Spain, headed by Pompey's sons, and the campaign against them. ending in the hard-fought battle of Munda, 17 March, and the final settlement of affairs in Spain, necessitated his absence from Rome from the end of 46 to September 45. The

senate welcomed him upon his return with the most servile flattery. He was already tribune for life; he was now made, for life, dictator and præfectus morum, a new term for the censorship, his head was stamped on the coinage, the month of Quintilis was renamed Julius, and he was given divine honors. With absolute power, thus lodged in his hands, he set about the permanent reconstruction of the government and the social fabric. He made the senate a much larger and more representative body, increased the number of magistrates, reduced by one half the recipients of the donation of grain, passed several laws in the interest of the debtor class and of Italian agriculture, prohibited farming by slave labor exclusively, inaugurated a farreaching plan to colonize in the provinces the unemployed population of Rome and Italy, and laid a legal foundation for the principle of limited local self-government of all Roman communities, wherever they might be. He had in mind, but did not live to carry out, the codification of the laws, the building of public libraries, the draining of the Pontine marshes, the making of a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, and the taking of a general census which should form a just basis for the imposition of taxes throughout the empire.

But he had risen too high to escape hatred. The plot to assassinate him probably originated in the personal spite of Gaius Cassius, but many of the conspirators, in particular Marcus Brutus, were foolish enough to believe that by the death of the dictator the republic could be restored. On 15 March 44 B.C., at a meeting of the senate held in the hall attached to Pompey's theatre, he fell at the feet of his great rival's statue, pierced by 23 wounds.

In studying Cæsar's life, one is especially struck by three points: his sane perception of the concrete fact, his indomitable energy, and his many-sidedness. More clearly than any other man of that time, he saw that the senatorial oligarchy had been proven wholly incompetent to govern a great empire, and that the problem could be solved only by the concentration of all power in the hands of a single man. Augustus cautiously veiled the change to monarchy; Julius bluntly called things by their real names and paid the penalty with his life. He was an able orator, but of his speeches, warmly praised by Cicero and Quintilian, none has come down to us. A treatise on grammar and one on astronomy have also perished. But his enduring fame as a writer rests upon the seven books of 'Commentaries on the Gallic War' (the eighth book is by Aulus Hirtius) and the three books of 'Commentaries on the Civil War. The former, essentially a political document, published in 51 B.C., is unsurpassed in its succinct simplicity and strength.

Bibliography. The principal ancient authorities are the biographies of Plutarch and Suetonius, Cicero's Letters, Sallust's 'Catiline,' Cæsar's own Commentaries,' and the Roman histories of Velleius Paterculus, Appian, and Dion Cassius. Mommsen's account in his History of Rome' is brilliant but over-enthusiastic. The following books may be recommended: Fowler, Julius Cæsar and the Foundation of the Roman Imperial System' (New York 1899); Dodge, Cæsar) (Boston 1892): Froude 'Cæsar) (New York 1884): Napoleon III. 'Histoire de Jules César' (English translation