Sea, are both, and nearly equally, below the Mediterranean level, and taken, together, they show the great slope both from the north and from the south towards the Dead Sea, confirming the discovery of Dr. Robinson, that the water-shed to the south of the Asphaltic Lake is towards its basin, and that, therefore, the Jordan could not at any time, as the country is at present constituted, have flowed on southward to the Elanitic Gulf, as was formerly supposed.

MOUNTAINS.-As all the principal mountains of Palestine are noticed in this work under their respective names, it is unnecessary to offer any observations under this head.

The most important or the most distinguished of the plains and valleys of Palestine are those of Lebanon, of the Jordan, of Jericho, of Esdraelon, and of the Coast.

The Plain of Lebanon may be described as the valley which is enclosed between the parallel mountain ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus. This enclosed plain is the Cole-Syria of the ancients, and now bears the name of el-Bekka (the Valley). It is about ninety miles in length, from north to south, by eleven miles in breadth, nearly equal throughout, except that it widens at the northern end and narrows at the southern. This plain is, perhaps, the most rich and beautiful part of Syria.

The Plain of the Jordan. By this name we understand the margin of the lakes, as well as the valley watered by the river. Here the heat is still greater than in the valley of Lebanon, and as water is usually wanting, the whole plain is barren and desolate.

The Plain of Jericho is but an opening or expansion in the plain of the Jordan, towards the Dead Sea. It is partly desert, but, from the abundance of water and the heat of the climate, it might be rendered highly productive; indeed, the fertility of this plain has been celebrated in every age. But of all the productions which once distinguished it, and the greater part of which it enjoyed in common with Egypt, very few now remain.

The Plain of Esdraelon is often mentioned in sacred history (Judg. iv. 13, 15, 16; v. 19; 2 Kings xxiii. 29; Zech. xii. 11; Judith i. 8), as the great battle-field of the Jewish and other nations, under the names of the Valley of Megiddo and the Valley of Jezreel; and by Josephus as the Great Plain. This extensive plain, exclusive of three great arms which stretch eastward towards the valley of the Jordan, may be said to be in the form of an acute triangle, having the measure of thirteen or fourteen miles on the north, about eighteen on the east, and above twenty on the south-west. In the western portion it seems perfectly level, with a general declivity towards the Mediterranean; but in the east it is somewhat undulated by slight spurs and swells from the roots of the mountains: from the eastern side three great valleys go off to the valley of the Jordan. These valleys are separated by the ridges of Gilboa and Little Hermon, and the space which lies between these two ridges is the proper valley of Jezreel, which name seems to be sometimes given to the whole plain of Esdraelon. The valley of Jezreel is a deep plain, and about three miles across. Before the verdure of spring and early summer has been parched up by the

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heat and drought of the late summer and autumn. the view of the Great Plain is, from its fertility and beauty, very delightful. The plain itself is almost without villages, but there are several on the slopes of the enclosing hills, especially on the side of Mount Carmel.

The Plain of the Coast is that tract of land which extends along the coast, between the sea and the mountains. In some places, where the mountains approach the sea, this tract is interrupted by promontories and rising grounds; but, taken generally, the whole coast of Palestine may be described as an extensive plain of various breadth. Sometimes it expands into broad plains at others it is contracted into narrow valleys With the exception of some sandy tracts the sa is throughout rich, and exceedingly productive. The climate is everywhere very warm, and is considered rather insalubrious as compared with the upland country. It is not mentioned by ay one collective name in Scripture. The part fronting Samaria, and between Mount Carmel and Jaffa, near a rich pasture-ground, was called the Valley of Sharon; and the continuati southward, between Jaffa and Gaza, was called The Plain, as distinguished from the hill-country of Judah.

RIVERS.-The Jordan is the only river of any note in Palestine, and besides it there are only two or three perennial streams. The greater number of the streams which figure in the history, and find a place in the maps, are merely taras

or watercourses.

The Jordan. We should like to consider this river simply as the stream issuing from the reservoir of the lake Huleh, but custom requires in source to be traced to some one or more of the streams which form that reservoir. The two largest streams, which enter the lake on the north, are each formed by the junction of two others. It is usual to refer the origin of a river to its remotest sources; but in this case the largest and longest, being the most easterly of the two streams, does not appear to have been at any time identified with the Jordan-that honour having for ages been ascribed to the western stream; this river has distinct sources, at Banias and at Tel-el-Kâdi. It is the former of these where a stream issues from a spacions cavern under a wall of rock which Josephus de scribes as the main source of the Jordan.

The true Jordan-the stream that quits the lake Huleh-passes rapidly along the narrow valley, and between well-shaded banks, to the lake of Gennesareth: the distance is about nice miles. Nearly two miles below the lake is 1 bridge, called Jacob's bridge; and here the river is about eighty feet wide, and four feet deep.

On leaving the lake of Gennesareth the river enters a very broad valley, or Ghor, which varies in width from five to ten miles between the mountains on each side. Within this valley there is a lower one, and within that, in so parts, another still lower, through which the river flows; the inner valley is about half a mile wide, and is generally green and beautiful, covered with trees and bushes, whereas the upper or large valley is, for the most part, sandy or barren. The distance between the lake of Genne sareth and the Dead Sea, in a direct line, is about sixty miles. In the first part of its course the

Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar were situated.

The Dead Sea is about thirty-nine or forty geographical miles long from north to south, and nine or ten miles wide from east to west; and it lies embedded very deep between lofty cliffs on the western side, which are about 1500 feet high, and mountains on the eastern shore, the highest ridges of which are reckoned to be from 2000 to 2500 feet above the water. The water of the lake is much salter than that of the sea. From the quantity of salt which the water holds in solution it is thick and heavy, and no fish can live, or marine plants grow in it. Lying in its deep cauldron, surrounded by lofty cliffs of naked limestone rock, exposed for seven or eight months in the year to the unclouded beams of a burning sun, nothing but sterility and solitude can be looked for upon its shores; and nothing else is actually found, except in those parts where there are fountains or streams of fresh water; in all which places there is a fertile soil and abundant vegetation. Birds also abound, and they are observed to fly over and across the sea without being, as old stories tell, injured or killed by its exhalations.

On the borders of this lake is found much sulphur, in pieces as large as walnuts, and even larger. There is also a black shining stone, which will partly burn in the fire, and which then emits a bituminous smell: this is the stinkstone' of Burckhardt. At Jerusalem it is made into rosaries and toys, of which great quantities are sold to the pilgrims who visit the sacred places. Another remarkable production found here, from which, indeed, the lake takes one of its names, is asphaltum, or bitumen. Josephus says, that the sea in many places sends up black masses of asphaltum, which float upon the surface, having the size and shape of headless oxen.' From recent information it appears that large masses are rarely found, and then generally after earthquakes. The substance is doubtless produced from the bottom of the sea, in which it coagulates, and rises to the surface; or possibly the coagulation may have been ancient, and the substance adheres to the bottom until detached by earthquakes and other convulsions, when its buoyancy brings it to the surface. We know that the vale of Siddim' (Gen. xiv. 10) was anciently full of slime-pits' or sources of bitumen; and these, now under the water, probably supply the asphaltum which is found on such occasions.

6

CLIMATE AND SEASONS.-The variations of sunshine and rain which, with us, extend throughout the year, are in Palestine confined chiefly to the latter part of autumn and the winter. During all the rest of the year the sky is almost uninterruptedly cloudless, and rain very rarely falls.

The autumnal rains usually commence at the latter end of October, or beginning of November, not suddenly, but by degrees; which gives opportunity to the husbandman to sow his wheat and barley. During the months of November and December the rains continue to fall heavily; afterwards they return at longer intervals, and are not so heavy; but at no period during the winter do they entirely cease to occur. Rain continues to fall more or less during the month of March, but is afterwards very rare. Morning

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mists occur as late as May, but rain almost never. Rain in the time of harvest was as incompre hensible to an ancient Jew as snow in summer (Prov. xxvi. 1; 1 Sam. xii. 17; Amos iv. 7). The early' and the latter' rains, for which the Jewish husbandmen awaited with longing (Prov. xvi. 15; James v. 7), seem to have been the first showers of autumn, which revived the parched and thirsty soil, and prepared it for the seed; and the later showers of spring, which continued to refresh and forward the ripening crops and the vernal products of the fields.

The cold of winter is not severe, and the ground is never frozen. Snow falls more or less, but even in the higher lands it does not lie long on the ground. Thunder and lightning are frequent in the winter.

In the plains and valleys the heat of summer is oppressive, but not in the more elevated tracts, as at Jerusalem, except when the south wind (S rocco) blows (Luke xii. 55). In such high grounds the nights are cool, often with heavy dew. The total absence of rain in summer soon destroys the verdure of the fields, and gives the general landscape, even in the high country. an aspect of drought and barrenness. No greed thing remains but the foliage of the scattered fruit-trees, and occasional vineyards and fields millet. In autumn the whole land becomes dry and parched; the cisterns are nearly empty, and all nature, animate and inanimate, looks forward with longing for the return of the rainy seas

In the hill-country the season of harvest is later than in the plains of the Jordan and of the sea-coast. The barley-harvest is about a fort night earlier than that of wheat. In the plain of the Jordan the wheat-harvest is early in May in the plains of the Coast and of Esdraelon it is towards the latter end of that month; and in the hills, not until June. The general vintage is in September, but the first grapes ripen in July, and from that time the towns are well supplied with this fruit.

The climate of Palestine has always been c sidered healthy, and the inhabitants have for the most part lived to a good old age (Tacit. His v. 6). Jerusalem, in particular, from its grea elevation, clear sky and invigorating atmosphere, should be a healthy place, and so it is generally esteemed; but the plague frequently appears among its ill-fed and uncleanly population; and bilious fevers, the result of great and sudden vicissitudes of temperature, are more commen than might be expected in such a situation.

INHABITANTS.-Under this head we present the reader with the following observations of Dr. Olin (Travels, ii. 438, 439):- The int bitants of Palestine are Arabs; that is, they speak the Arabic, though, with slight exceptions, they are probably all descendants of the old inhabitants of Syria. They are a fine, spirited race of me and gave Mohammed Ali much trouble in sub duing them, and still more in retaining them in subjection. They are said to be industrious for Orientals, and to have the right elements for becoming, under better auspices, a civilized in tellectual nation...... The mercantile class is said to be little respected, and generally to lack integrity. Veracity is held very lightly by all classes. The people are commonly temperate and frugal, which may be denominated Oriental

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virtues. Their situation, with regard to the physical means of comfort and subsistence, is, in many respects, favourable, and under a tolerable government would be almost unequalled. As it is, the Syrian peasant and his family fare much better than the labouring classes of Europe. The people almost always appear well clothed. Their houses, too, though often of a slight construction and mean appearance, must be pronounced commodious when compared with the dark, crowded apartments usually occupied by the corresponding classes in Europe. Agricultural wages vary a good deal in different parts of the country, but I had reason to conclude that the average was not less than three or four piasters per day.' With all these advantages population is on the decline, arising from polygamy, military conscription, unequal and oppressive taxation, forced labour, general insecurity of property, the discouragement of industry, and the plague.

NATURAL HISTORY.-As all the objects of natural history, mentioned in Scripture, are in the present work examined under the proper heads with unexampled care and completeness, by writers eminent in their several departments, it is unnecessary in this place to go over the ground which has been so advantageously preoccupied. It may suffice to mention the following facts in respect to the actual natural history of the country.-The olive certainly was, and still continues to be, the chief of all the trees of Palestine, which seems to be its natural home. Excellent oil is still obtained from the fruit. But although the pre-eminence among the trees of Palestine must be assigned to the olive, fig-trees also occur in great numbers, and the plantations sometimes cover large tracts which the eye can scarcely embrace. The fruit has a peculiarly pleasant flavour, and an aromatic sweetness, but is generally smaller than that of Smyrna. The vine, which is now only found in some districts of Palestine, is not surpassed by any on earth for the strength of its juice, and-at least in the southern mountains-for the size and abundance of the grapes.

The first tree whose blossoms appear prior to the period of the latter rains, and open in the very deep valleys before the cold days of February set in, is the Luz or almond-tree. In March, the fruit-trees are in blossom, among which are the apricot, the apple, and the pear; in April the purple of the pomegranate flowers combines with the white of the myrtle blossoms; and at the same period the roses of the country, and the variegated ladanes (Cistus); the zukkim-tree (Elaeagnus angustifolius), the storax-tree, whose flowers resemble those of the German jasmine (Philadelphus coronarius), emit their fragrant odours. The palm-tree is not now seen in the interior of the country; but it thrives well in the low lands near the coast. The tall cypress only exists in Palestine, as cultivated by man, in gardens, and in cemeteries, and other open places of towns. But as the spontaneous growth of the country, we find upon the heights and swelling hills the azarole (Crataegus azarolus), the walnuttree, the strawberry-tree, the laurel-tree, the laurestinus, species of the pistachio and terebinth trees, of evergreen oaks, and of the rhamnus of the size of trees and shrubs, the cedrine junipertree, and some sorts of thymelaus; while on the

formerly wooded heights various kinds of pinetrees, large and small, still maintain their ground. The sycamore, the carob trees, and the opuntia fig-trees, are only found as objects of cultivation in or near towns; and orchards of orange and lemon trees occur chiefly in the neighbourhood of Nabulus (Shechem).

The various kinds of corn grow spontaneously in great plenty in many districts, chiefly in the plains of Jezreel and the heights of Galilee, being the wild progeny of formerly cultivated fields, and bearing testimony by their presence to the fitness of the soil for the production of grain. In addition to wheat and barley, among this wild growth, the common rye was often seen. The present course of agriculture, which is but carelessly practised, comprises nearly the same kinds of grain which are grown in Egypt. Fields are seen covered with the dhurah, or Holchus sorghum. Maize, spelt, and barley thrive everywhere; and rice is produced on the Upper Jordan and the marshy borders of the lake Merom. Upon the Jordan, near Jacob's bridge, may be seen fine tall specimens of the papyrus reed. Of pulse the inhabitants grow the chick pea, the blue chickling vetch, the Egyptian bean, the kidney bean, the gilban (Lathyrus sativus), together with the lentil, and the grey or field pea. Of esculent vegetables, the produce of the various species of hibiscus are much liked and cultivated. In some places the Christian inhabitants or Franks are endeavouring to introduce the potato. In the garden of the monasteries the artichoke is very common: in most districts, as about Nabulus (Shechem), the water-melon and cucumber are very common. Hemp is more generally grown in Palestine than flax; and in favourable localities cotton is cultivated, and also madder for dyeing.

Herds of black cattle are now but rarely seen in Palestine. The ox in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem is small and unsightly, and beef or veal is but rarely eaten. But in the northern parts of the country the ox thrives better and is more frequently seen. The buffalo thrives upon the coast, and is there equal in size and strength to the buffalo of Egypt. Sheep and goats are still seen in great numbers in all parts of the country: their flesh and milk serve for daily food, and their wool and hair for clothing. The common sort of sheep in Palestine manifest the tendency to form a fat and large tail. The longeared Syrian goat is furnished with hair of considerable fineness, but seemingly not so fine as that of the same species of goat in Asia Minor. Of animals of the deer kind, Schubert saw only the female of the fallow-deer; but several species of antelopes are met with in the country.

Camels are not reared to any extent worth mentioning. Palestine cannot boast of its native breed of horses, although fine animals of beautiful shape, and apparently of high Arabian race, are not unfrequently seen. The ass of the country scarcely takes higher relative rank than the horse; asses and mules are still, however, much used for riding, as they afford a means of locomotion well suited to the difficult mountain paths of the country. Boars are very often observed upon Mount Tabor and the Lesser Hermon, as well as on the woody slopes of Mount Carmel. Among indigenous animals of the genus felis, we may name the common panther, which is found

among the mountains of central Palestine; and in the genus canis there is the small Abul Hhosseyn, or Canis famelicus, and a kind of large fox (Canis Syriacus). In addition to these is the jackal, which is very injurious to the flocks. The hyæna is found chiefly in the valley of the Jordan, and in the mountains around the lake of Tiberias, but is also occasionally seen in other districts of Palestine. Bears are said to be found in the Anti-Libanus, not far from Damascus. A hedgehog, procured near Bethlehem, was found to resemble the common European animal, and not to be the long-eared Egyptian species. The hare is the same as the Arabian. The porcupine is frequently found in the clefts of the rocks.

Among the larger birds of prey the common vulture and the kite are oftenest seen. The native wild dove differs not perceptibly from our own species, which is also the case with the shrikes, crows, rollers, and other species found in Palestine.

Tortoises are not uncommon. Serpents are rare, and none of those which have been observed are poisonous. The Janthina fragilis, which yields the common purple dye, has been noticed near the coast. Among the insects the bee is the most conspicuous. Mosquitoes are somewhat troublesome. Beetles are abundant, and of various species.

PALM. [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.]

PALM-TREE. The family of palms is characteristic of tropical countries, and but few of them extend into northern latitudes. In the old world, the species P. dactylifera, genus Phoenix, is that found farthest north. It spreads along the course of the Euphrates and Tigris across to Palmyra and the Syrian coast of the Mediterranean. It has been introduced into the south of Spain, and thrives well at Malaga; and is also cultivated at Bordaghière in the south of France, chiefly on account of its leaves, which are sold at two periods of the year, in Spring for Palm Sunday, and again at the Jewish Passover.

The peculiarities of the palm-tree are such that they could not fail to attract the attention of the writers of any country where it is indigenous, and especially from its being an indication of the vicinity of water even in the midst of the most desert country. Its roots, though not penetrating very deep, or spreading very wide, yet support a stem of considerable height, which is remarkable for its uniformity of thickness throughout. The centre of this lofty stem, instead of being the hardest part, as in other trees, is soft and spongy, and the bundles of woody fibres successively produced in the interior are regularly pushed outwards, until the outer part becomes the most dense and hard, and is hence most fitted to answer the purposes of wood. The outside, though devoid of branches, is marked with a number of protuberances, which are the points of insertion of former leaves. These are from four to six and eight feet in length, ranged in a bunch round the top of the stem, the younger and softer being in the centre, and the older and outer series hanging down. They are employed for covering the roofs or sides of houses, for fences, frame-work, mats, and baskets. The male and female flowers being on different trees, the latter require to be fecundated by the pollen of the former before the fruit can ripen. The

PANNAG

tender part of the spatha of the flowers being pierced, a bland and sweet juice exudes, which being evaporated, yield sugar, and is no doubt what is alluded to in some passages of Scripture: if it be fermented and distilled a strong spirit or arak is yielded. The fruit, however, which is yearly produced in numerous clusters and in the utmost abundance, is its chief value; for whole tribes of Arabs and Africans find their chief sus tenance in the date, of which even the stony seeds, being ground down, yield nourishment to the camel of the desert.

The palm-tree is first mentioned in Exod. v. 27, when the Israelites encamped at Elim, where there were twelve wells and threescore and tes palm-trees. In the present day Wady Ghorendel is found the largest of the torrent beds on the west side of the Sinai peninsula, and is a valley full of date-trees, tamarisks, &c. Jericho was called the City of Palm-Trees, no doubt from the locality being favourable to their growth, Mariti and Shaw describe them as still existing there, though in diminished numbers. The palmtree was considered characteristic of Judæa, not so much probably because it was more abundant there than in other countries, but because that was the first country where the Greeks and Romans would meet with it in proceeding southward. Hence the coins of the Roman conquerors of Judæa have inscribed on them a weeping female sitting under a palm-tree, with the inscription Judæa capta.'

PALSY. [DISEASES.]

PAMPHYLIA, a province in the southern part of Asia Minor, having the Mediterranean on the south, Cilicia on the east, Pisidia on the north, and Lycia on the west. It was nearly opposite the island of Cyprus; and the sea be tween the coast and the island is called in Acts the sea of Pamphylia. The chief cities of this province were Perga and Attalia. Christianity was probably first preached in this country by some of the Jewish proselytes who were converted on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 10, 15, 38). It was afterwards visited by Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii. 13).

PAN NAG occurs only once in Scripture, but so much uncertainty exists respecting the meaning of the word, that in many translations, as, for instance, in the Authorized English Version, the