ECCLESIASTES

to four inches thick. This is the least wasteful, as all the refuse is left behind; but it is the most porous, and the worst in point of colour. No Abyssinian ebony is at present imported: this, however, is more likely to be owing to the different routes which commerce has taken, but which is again returning to its ancient channels, than to the want of ebony in the ancient Ethiopia. From the nature of the climate, and the existence forests in which the elephant abounds, there can be no doubt of its being well suited to the group of plants which have been found to yield the ebony of Mauritius, Ceylon, and India, namely, the genus Diospyros of botanists. EBER. HEBER.]

ECBATANA. [ACHMETHA.] ECCLESIASTES. This book has obtained its Hebrew name Koheleth from the designation of the principal person mentioned in it, who is thus styled in several passages. Some have supposed that Koheleth means a body or academy of sages, whose dicta are contained in this book; but this opinion is contradicted by the heading of the book itself, which thus commences: Words of Koheleth, the son of David, the king in Jerusalem. Hence it appears that Koheleth is intended for an epithet of Solomon. Various interpretations have been given of its meaning, but in all probability it means assembler, preacher, or teacher.

The circumstance that Solomon is introduced as the speaker in this book has induced most of the ancient interpreters to consider him as its author. Others, however, are of opinion that words are used in it which show that it must have been written at a later period than the time of Solomon.

The diversity of sentiment as to the authorship has of course led also to a difference of opinion as to the date of the book. But one thing is clear, that whoever may have been the author, the book cannot have been written after the times of Ezra and Nehemiah, under whom the canon was completed.

Those who maintain that Ecclesiastes was not written by Solomon are of opinion that it was not composed during the latter period of the first, but rather during the time of the second temple, since idolatry does not occur amongst the deviations combated by the author. The whole book seems to presuppose that the people were externally devoted to the Lord. The admonitions of the author to a serene enjoyment of life, and against marmuring; exhortations to be contented with Divine Providence, and the attacks upon a selfish righteousness of works, may best be explained by supposing the author to have lived in a period like that of Malachi, in which there prevailed a Pharisaical self-righteousness, and melancholy murmurings because God would not recognise the alleged rights which they produced before him, and refused to acknowledge the claims they made upon him.

The author places the fundamental idea of the nothingness of all earthly things both at the beginning and at the end of his book, and during its course repeatedly returns to the same. This has induced many interpreters to suppose that the purpose of the author was to demonstrate this one idea; an opinion which, down to the most recent times, has been unfavourable to the true interpretation of the book, because every thing,

however reluctant, has been forced into an imaginary connection. The following is the correct view. The object of the author is not to teach an especial tendency of wisdom, but wisdom in general. Consequently it is not at all surprising if the connection suddenly ceases, and a new subject commences. That the idea of the nothingness of earthly matters should strongly predominate may easily be explained, since according to our author it forms a very important part of wisdom. He never, however, intended to confine himself to this one idea, although he likes frequently to point it out in passing, even when he is considering a matter from another point of view. The plan of this book,' says Herder, has been the subject of much investigation. It is best to consider this plan as free as possible, and to employ its separate parts for its support. The commencement and the conclusion show the unity of the whole. The greater part consists of isolated observations concerning the course of the world, and the experience of his life. These are connected with general sentences; and, finally, a very simple conclusion is deduced from the whole. It seems to me that a more artificial texture ought not to be sought for.'

With regard to the contents and objects of the book, we have to consider only the fundamental idea, omitting isolated sentences of wisdom, and rules for the conduct of life. Nobody can entertain any doubt concerning this fundamental idea. It is, contained in the sentence: Vanity of vanities; all is vanity.' It is, however, very important that this should be rightly understood. The question is, What is that ALL which is vanity? The author does not mean ALL in general, but only ALL of a certain genus. He himself explains this, by defining this ALL in numerous passages; as, all that is under the sun; that is, earthly things in their separation from the heavenly. To this leads also the enumeration of the ALL, in which occur only those things which belong to the earth-riches, sensual pleasure, honour, sphere of activity, human wisdom apart from God, selfrighteousness. From many passages it appears that the author was far from comprehending the fear of God and active obedience to his laws among that ALL which was vanity. This appears most strikingly from the conclusion, which, as such, is of the highest importance, and furnishes the undoubted measure for the correctness of the whole interpretation. Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man [i. e. in this consists all that is incumbent upon him; and his whole salvation depends upon it]. For God shall bring every work into judgment, with every secret thing, whether good, or whether evil. (Compare ch. xii. 1: Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth;' ch. v. 5-7, Fear thou God;' ch. vii. 18, and many other passages.) A deep religious sense pervades the whole book. In reference to the prevailing idea, Ewald strikingly remarks, p. 182,

There blows throughout this book a piercing chill against every earthly aim, and every vain endeavour; a contempt which changes into a bitter sneer against every thing which in the usual proceedings of men is onesided and perverse; an indefatigable penetration in the discovery of all human vanities and fooleries. In

T

no earlier writing has all cause of pride and vain imagination so decidedly and so comprehensively been taken from man; and no book is pervaded by such an outcry of noble indignation against all that is vain in this world.'

From the contents of the book results its object. The author had received the mission to treat professedly and in a concentrated manner the highly important sentence, Vanity of vanities; all is vanity,' which pervades the whole of Holy Writ; but he is not content with the mere theoretical demonstration, so as to leave to another teacher its practical application, but places before us these practical results themselves: What is incumbent upon man, since every thing else is nought? What real good remains for us, after the appearance in every seeming good has been destroyed? The answer is, Man shall not gain by cunning and grasping; shall not consume himself in vain meditations, nor in a hurried activity; he shall not murmur about the loss of that which is naught; he shall not by means of a self-made righteousness constrain God to grant him salvation; but he shall instead fear God (ch. xii. 13; v. 6, 7), and be mindful of his Creator (ch. xii. 1); he shall do good as much as he is able (ch. iii. 12); and in other passages. And all this, as it is constantly inculcated by the author, with a contented and grateful heart, freed from care and avarice; living for the present moment, joyfully taking from the hand of the Lord what he offers in a friendly manner. Man shall not be of a sorrowful countenance, but in quiet serenity enjoy the gifts of God. What would avail him all his cares and all his avarice? By them he cannot turn any thing aside from him, or obtain any thing, since every thing happens as it shall happen. ECCLESIASTICUS. WISDOM OF SIRACH.] ECDIPPA. [ACHZIB.] E'DEN. [PARADISE.] E'DOM. ESAU.] E'DOMITÈS. [[DUMÆA.]

ED'REI, one of the metropolitan towns (Ashtaroth being the other) of the kingdom of Bashan, beyond the Jordan. It was here that Og, the gigantic king of Bashan, was defeated by the Israelites, and lost his kingdom (Num. xxi. 33-35: Deut. i. 4; iii. 1-3). Edrei afterwards belonged to eastern Manasseh (Josh. xiii. 81). It was the seat of a bishop in the early ages of Christianity. The place now bears the name of Draa, and has been visited in the present century by most of the travellers who have explored the country beyond the Jordan. It is situated in a deep valley, two hours south-east from Mezareib; and the ruins cover an extent of about two miles in circumference, the principal being an immense rectangular building, with a double covered colonnade all around, and a cistern in the middle. This seems to have been originally a Christian church, and afterwards a mosque. Near the town, in the hollow of the mountains, is a large reservoir cased with stone, near which are the ruins of a large building, with a cupola of light materials.

EG'LON, a king of Moab, who, assisted by the Ammonites and Amalekites, subdued the Israelites beyond the Jordan, and the southern tribes on this side the river, and made Jericho the seat, or one of the seats, of his government. This subjection to a power always present must have been more galling to the Israelites than any they

EGYPT

had previously suffered. It lasted eighteer when (B.c. 1428) they were delivered, t the instrumentality of Ehud, who slew the itish king (Judg. iii. 12-33).

EGYPT, the land of Ham, a son of from whom was derived the ancient nativ lation of the country, Chemi. From M the second son of Ham, comes the o Biblical name, Mizraim, a word which Į denotes Lower Egypt, as being that part country with which the Israelites were and best, if not (in the earlier periods history) solely, acquainted. This desi however, is sometimes used for Egyp criminately, and was by the later Arabs e to the entire country.

Egypt is the land of the Nile, the through which that river flows from the of Philæ, situated just above the Cata Syene, in lat. 24° 1′ 36′′, to Damietta, in N., where its principal stream pours itself` Mediterranean Sea. On the east it is bou Palestine, Idumæa, Arabia Petræa, and t bian Gulf. On the west, the moving the wide Libyan desert obliterate the tra political or physical limits. Inhabited however, is restricted to the valley of t which, having a breadth of from two miles, is enclosed on both sides by a hills: the chain on the eastern side disa Mocattam; that on the west extends t In lat. 30° 15', the Nile divides into two streams, which, in conjunction with a t springs somewhat higher up, forms the called from its resemblance to the Greek These mountains are interesting, if for reason than that they served as the be the materials were obtained out of wh constructed the wonderful buildings f Egypt is justly distinguished. The s extent of Egypt has been estimated 11,000 square miles. The soil, which i tive, consists almost exclusively of mud down and deposited by the river, who are indispensable every year for the pu agriculture to such an extent that the their flow are the limits of vegetatio Delta owes its very existence to the de the Nile, and but for the waters of thi carried over its surface by natural or means, would soon be a desert: it was with propriety, as indeed was the entire termed the gift of the Nile.' The ager stream is the more necessary because seldom falls in Lower Egypt. The lan as it is on the confines of Africa and As adjacent and accessible to Europe, in its den and a store-house, may well have important position in the ancient world hardly fail, unless political influences adverse, to rise to a commanding at modern times. As to the number of it ants, nothing very definite is known. Its would doubtless give birth to, and s teeming population. In very remote many as 8,000,000 of souls are said to h on its soil. In the days of Diodorus Sic were estimated at 3,000,000. Volney number 2,300,000. The present govern mate is 3,200,000, which seems to be st beyond the fact.