plural ending, which the Egyptians borrowed from those tribes which intervened between them and these Ludan; or it may be the accusative plural of the IndoEuropean name. It may be well, however, to compare it with the termination of another proper name, which occurs in the Sallier Papyrus No. 3, and which appears to refer to the very same people. A name is found there, which Champollion read Iwan and took for the Ionians. It has since been ascertained that the character which Champollion read i has for its value ari or iri. The name therefore is Ariwan, the Aryans or noble people, a title which the Indian and Persian branches of this people which descended from the north applied to themselves, and which (it would seem) the Syrian branch of the same people also used. The an at the end of these two names is probably the same element; and the fact of its being preceded by w, when not preceded by a consonant, suggests a third explanation of it. It may be the suffix which appears in rájan (nom. rájá), daíμwv, latron (nom. latro) and ahman (nom. ahma), which suffix was probably the theme of the first numeral, denoting a noun of unity. Thus Ariwan would be 'Apiwv, or 'Ipiwv, from the latter of which it is just possible that "Iov may be derived.

Whatever may be thought of this last derivation, it seems clear that the IndoEuropean glosses, found in the Assyrian inscriptions, are in the language of a people which had separated, some centuries before the date of the earliest Assyrian inscription, from the Aryans of Persia, and which had probably accompanied these in their migration from the northern region which they originally inhabited; and that while a portion of these western Aryans remained in Syria and the adjacent countries, the main body of them proceeded westward through Asia Minor and across the Bosphorus or Hellespont, forming the Hellenic or Ionic people of the Greeks; which mingled with the Pelasgians (a more ancient Indo-European race akin to the Italian tribes), and by their union formed the different dialects of Greek with which we are acquainted. It is probable, but not so certain, that the language of the people from whom all these Aryan tribes were derived, was Lithuanian in its oldest form.

A New Map of the Interior of the Northern Island of New Zealand, constructed during an Inland Journey in 1859. By Professor F. VON HOCHSTETTER (Vienna), Geologist of the Austrian Novara Expedition.

On the Antiquity of the Human Race. By Dr. J. Hunt.

On the Geographical Distribution and Trade in the Cinchona.
By V. HURTADO.

The different species of the tree which yields the bark known in commerce as Peruvian bark, and from which the sulphate of quinine is obtained, grow on the slopes of the Andes, at a height which varies according to the latitude and the topographical situation of the mountains where this precious vegetable production has been found. In New Grenada it grows on the central branch of the Cordillera, which extends from the province of Paito, and separates the two valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena, being most abundant in the districts of Pitayó and Almaguer. It is also found on the mountains above Finagamga, near Bogotá. The Pitayó bark has been the richest in quinine; and as in that locality the cuttings have been carried on to the greatest extent, the article is nearly exhausted. The same may be said of the Finagamga variety, which, although not so rich as the Pitayó, is prized on account of its being of easier labour. The Almaguer bark, which at first was hardly saleable, is now used to a great extent in Philadelphia and London, on account of the scarcity of the two former specics. The best bark is found on the Pitayó mountain, at a height of from 8000 to 11,000 feet above the level of the sea. The tree grows among the numerous species of Alpine vegetation which cover those mountains with thick forests, either in clusters or scattered about. For that reason it varies in size. Like all trees of a cold climate, it is of slow growth, and requires a great many years to arrive at a good height. Some of them have been found so large as to yield forty arrobas of green bark, which, when dried up, is reduced to about a third of its weight. Others only produce about ten arrobas. As this tree is chiefly found in

wild, cold, uninhabited mountains, constantly covered by clouds, there has been no system in cutting, nor any study made to ascertain how long a spot should be left at rest before undertaking new cuttings. It is known that the roots produce a great many shoots after a tree is cut down, and that these require about fifty years to become of a middling size. Young trees are also found growing from seeds. The nature of the soil seems to determine the qualities of the alkalies contained in the bark, quinine being most abundant in Pitayó, and cinchonine in Almaguer. But rocky mountains and ravines are the spots where nature has placed this vegetable species. The author is not aware that any bark trees have been found on the western Cordillera, which separates the valley of Cauca from the Pacific coast, which ridge never attains the elevation of perpetual snow in those latitudes. It only remains to state, that the price of good sound Pitayó bark, which had gone down in London to 18. 8d. per pound, is now as high as 2s. 6d., and some very inferior lots have been sold at 3s. The Almaguer sort, which was entirely neglected two years ago, is now accepted by manufacturers at from 1s. to 1s. 4d. per pound. No mention is made of the Bolivian bark, the most esteemed in commerce, as the author is not personally acquainted with that trade.

On Alphabets, and especially the English; and on a New Method of Marking the Sound of English Words, without change of Orthography. By the Rev. Professor JARRETT, M.A.

On the Origin of the Arts, and the Influence of Race in their Development. By R. KNOX.

A brief Account of the Progress of the Works of the Isthmus of Suez Canal. By D. A. LANGE.

On the Jaczwings, a Population of the Thirteenth Century, on the Frontiers of Prussia and Lithuania. By R. G. LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S.

In the middle of the thirteenth century, the Jaczwings were a powerful nation, between the Vistula, the Niemen, and the Upper Dnieper. At the present moment, a small population, called by the neighbouring Lithuanians Jodwezhai, and distinguished by a dark complexion and certain peculiarities of dress and manners, is the chief representative of the name. A few localities-(1) Jatvis Pol=Jaczving Land, (2) Jatvis Stara=Old Jatvis, (3) Jatris Nova=New Jatvis, (4) Mogilki-Jadzhvingowski Jaczving Graves, and (5, 6, 7) three villages named Jatvesk, complete the fragments. The name, having come to us through Latin, Polish, German, Bohemian, and Russian mediums, is hardly twice spelt alike, e. g. we have Jazuingi, Jasuingi, Jacuingi, Jacwingi, Jaczwingi, Jatwingi in the German and Polish; Jatryagi, Jatviazhi, Jatviezie, &c., in the Russian. To these add Getwezeu, Getuinzetæ, and even Geta. In speculating upon the ethnological affinities and the former extension of these tribes, in the direction of both the Gothini and the Gothones of the classical writers, this multiplicity of variations must be borne in mind. In respect to the immediate affinities of the nation at the particular time under notice, the evidence is very decided to their being members of the same family, and to their speaking the same language with the Prussians (i. e. the occupants of East Prussia before the German Conquest), the Lithuanians, the Samogitians, and the Letts. Their locality supports these statements, as do the few words which have come to us from their language. Whether they were equally Lithuanic in blood, is another question. The few, but important details of their history derive their interest (as do those of the Lithuanic family altogether) from the peculiar character of the great religious contest which they represent. With the Greek Christianity of Russia on the east, and the Papal influences on the west, Lithuania and Finland were not only the last strongholds of Paganism, but were acted upon as such in two directions. The resistance, however, of the Lithuanians was most obstinate; and the most obstinate of the Lithuanians were the Jaczwings. Their annihilation, too, was most complete. In 1264, a great battle broke their power. In the fifteenth century not even the name of the

Jaczwings remained. A more moderate notice simply says that the name of the Jeczwings was very rare and known to few. Conjointly with the special details of the Jaczwings themselves, those of the populations with which they came in contact should be studied-those of Russia and Poland, cut up into duchies; of Gallicia, a powerful principality; of Lithuania, a kingdom under Mindov, vacillating both in creed and politics; of North-Eastern Germany under the Knights of the Teutonic order; and, finally, of Volhynia occupied by Comanian Turks, and partly overrun by Mongols. Details, however, of this kind are beyond the pale of the present notice, which is chiefly made for the sake of drawing attention to the history of a nationthe pre-eminently Pagan nation of Europe-once powerful, but now fragmentary, the blood of which must still be found in more than one district where the language is German, Lithuanic, Polish, or Russian.

On the latest Discoveries in South-Central Africa.

By Dr. D. LIVINGSTONE.

The following letter from Dr. Livingstone was read to the Section :—

River Shiré, Nov. 4, 1859. The River Shiré has its source in the green waters of the great Lake Nyassa (lat. 14° 23' S., long. 35° 30′ E.). It flows serenely on in a southerly direction, a fine navigable stream, from 80 to 120 yards in breadth, expanding some 12 or 15 miles from Nyassa into a beautiful lakelet, with a well-defined water horizon, and perhaps 5 or 6 miles wide; then narrowing again, it moves quietly on about 40 miles, till it reaches Murchison's Cataracts. After a turbulent course of 30 miles, it emerges from the cataracts a peaceful river capable of carrying a large steamer through the remaining 112 miles of its deep channel, and joins the Zambesi in lat. 17° 47' S., 100 miles from the confluence of that river with the sea. The valley through which the Shiré flows is from 10 to 12 miles broad at the southern extremity of Lake Nyassa, but soon stretches out to 20 or 30 miles, and is bounded all the way on both sides by ranges of hills, the eastern range being remarkably lofty. At Chihisas (lat. 16° 2′ 3′′ S., 35° 1′E.), a few miles below the cataracts, the range of hills on the left bank of the Shiré is not above 3 miles from the river, while the other range has receded out of sight. If from Chihisas we proceed in a north-easterly path, a three hours' march places us on an elevation of upwards of 1000 feet. This is not far from the level of the Upper Shiré valley (1200 feet), and appears to be its prolongation. Four hours' additional travel, and we reach another plateau, 1000 feet higher, and in a few hours more the highest plateau, 3000 feet above the level of the sea, is attained, and we are on an extensive table-land, which, in these three distinct divisions, extends to Zomba (lat. of southern end 15° 21′ S.). It is then broken; and natives report that, north of Zomba, which is 20 miles in length from north to south, there is but a narrow partition between Lakes Nyassa and Tamandua (Shirwa). Three islands were visible on the west side of what we could see of Nyassa from its southern end. The two ranges of hills stretch along its shores, and we could see looming through the haze caused by burning grass all over the country the dim outlines of some lofty mountains behind the eastern hills. On the table-land are numerous hills and some mountains, as Chicadgura, perhaps 5000 feet high, and Zomba (which was ascended), from 7000 to 8000 feet in altitude. From this tableland we can see, on the east of Lake Tamandua, the Milanje Mountains, apparently higher than Zomba and Mount Clarendon, not unworthy of the noble name it bears. All this region is remarkably well-watered; wonderfully numerous are the streams and mountain rills of clear, cool, gushing water. Once we passed eight of them and a strong spring in a single hour, and we were then at the end of the dry season. Even Zomba has a river about 20 yards wide, flowing through a rich valley near its summit. The hill is well wooded also; trees, admirable for their height and the amount of timber in them, abound along the banks of the streams. "Is this country good for cattle?" the head man of the Makololo, whose business had been the charge of cattle, was asked. "Truly," replied he; "don't you see the abundance of such and such grasses, which cattle love, and on which they grow fat?" And yet the people have only a few goats, and still fewer sheep. There are no wild animals in the highlands, and but few birds; and with the exception of one place, where we

saw some elephants, buffaloes, &c., there are none on the plains of the Upper Shiré, but the birds, new and strange, are pretty numerous. In the upper part of the Lower Shiré, in the highlands, and in the valley of the Upper Shire, there is a somewhat numerous population. The people generally live in villages and in hamlets near them. Each village has its own chief, and the chiefs in a given territory have a head chief, to whom they owe some sort of allegiance. The paramount chief of one portion of the Upper Shiré is a woman, who lives two days' journey from the west side of the river, and possesses cattle. The chief has a good deal of authority; he can stop trade till he has sold his own things. One or two insisted on seeing what their people got for the provisions sold to us. The women drop on their knees when he passes them. Mongazi's wife went down on her knees, when he handed her our present to carry into the hut. One evening a Makololo fired his musket without leave, received a scolding, and had his powder taken from him. "If he were my man," said the chief, "I would fine him a fowl also." The sites of their villages are selected, for the most part, with judgment and good taste. A stream or spring is near, and pleasant shade-trees grow in and around the place. Nearly every village is surrounded by a thick high hedge of the poisonous Euphorbia. During the greater part of the year the inhabitants could see an enemy through the hedge, while he would find it a difficult matter to see them. By shooting their already poisoned arrows through the tender branches, they get smeared with the poisonous milky juice, and inflict most painful if not fatal wounds. The constant dripping of the juice from the bruised branches prevents the enemy from attempting to force his way through the hedge, as it destroys the eyesight. The huts are larger, stronger built, with higher and more graceful roofs than any we have seen on the Zambesi. The Boabab (spreading place) is at one side of the village; the ground is made smooth and level, and the banians, the favourite trees, throw a grateful shade over it. Here the people meet to smoke tobacco and bang; to sing, dance, beat drums, and drink beer. [In the Boabab of one small village we counted fourteen drums of various sizes, all carefully arranged on dry grass.] Some useful work, too, is performed in this place, as spinning, weaving, making baskets and fish-nets. On entering a village, we proceeded at once to the Boabab, on which the Strangers' hut is built, and sat down. Large mats of split bamboo are politely brought to us to recline on. Our guides tell some of the people who we are, how we have behaved ourselves since they knew us, where we are going, and what our object is. This word is carried to the chief. If a sensible man, he comes as soon as he hears of our arrival; if timid or suspicious, he waits till he has thrown his dice, and given his warriors, for whom he has sent in hot haste, time to assemble. When the chief makes his appearance, his people begin to clap their hands, and continue clapping until he sits down; then his councillors take their places beside him, with whom he converses for a minute or so. Our guides sit down opposite them. A most novel scene now transpires; both parties, looking earnestly at each other, pronounce a word, as "Amhinatu" (our chief or father), then a clap of the hands from each oneanother word, two claps-a third word, three claps-and this time all touch the ground with their closed hands. Next, all rise clapping-sit down again, and-clap, clap, clap-allowing the sound gradually to die away. They keep time in this most perfectly, the chief taking the lead. The guides now tell the chief all they please, and retire, clapping the hands gently, or with one hand on the breast; and his own people do the same, when they pass the chief, in retiring. The customary presents are exchanged, after a little conversation with the chief, and in a short time his people bring provisions for sale. In some villages the people clapped with all their might when they approved what the chief was saying to us. In others, the clapping seems omitted in our case, though we could see it was kept with black strangers who came into the village. The chief at the Lake, an old man, came to see us of his own accord, said he had heard that we had come, and sat down under a tree, and he came to invite us to take up our quarters with him. Many of the men are very intelligent-looking, with high foreheads and well-shaped heads. They show singular taste in the astonishingly varied styles in which their hair is arranged. Their bead necklaces are really pretty specimens of work. Many have the upper and middle as well as the lower part of the ear bored, and have from three to five rings in each ear. The hole in the lobe of the ear is large enough to admit one's finger,

and some wear a piece of bamboo about an inch long in it. Brass and iron bracelets, elaborately figured, are seen; and some of the men sport from two to eight brass rings on each finger, and even the thumbs are not spared. They wear copper, brass, and iron rings on their legs and arms; many have their front teeth notched, and some file them till they resemble the teeth of a saw. The upper lip ring of the women gives them a revolting appearance; it is universally worn in the highlands. A puncture is made high up in the lip, and it is gradually enlarged until the pelelé can be inserted. Some are very large. One we measured caused the lip to project two inches beyond the tip of the nose; when the lady smiled the contraction of the muscles elevated it over the eyes. "Why do the women wear these things?" the venerable chief, Chinsurdi, was asked. Evidently surprised at such a stupid question, he replied, "For beauty! They are the only beautiful things women have; men have beards, women have none. What kind of a person would she be without the pelelé? She would not be a woman at all with a mouth like a man, but no beard." One woman having a large tin pelelé with a bottom like a dish, refused to sell it, because, she said, her husband would beat her if she went home without it. These rings are made of bamboo, of iron, or of tin. Their scanty clothing-the prepared bark of trees, the skins of animals (chiefly goats), and a thick strong cotton cloth-are all of native manufacture. They seem to be an industrious race. Iron is dug out of the hills, and every village has one or two smelting houses; and from their own native iron they make excellent hoes, axes, spears, knives, arrow-heads, &c. They make, also, round baskets of various sizes, and earthen pots, which they ornament with plumbago, said to be found in the Hill Country, though we could not learn exactly where, nor in what quantities: the only specimen we obtained was not pure. At every fishing village on the banks of the river Shiré men were busy spinning buaze and making large fishing-nets from it; and from Chihisas to the Lake, in every village almost, we saw men cleaning and spinning cotton, while others were weaving it into strong cloth in looms of the simplest construction, all the processes being excessively slow. This is a great cotton-growing country. The cotton is of two kinds, "Tonji manga," or foreign cotton; and "Tonji cadji," or native cotton. The former is of good quality, with a staple from three-quarters to an inch in length. It is perennial, requiring to be re-planted only once in three years. The native cotton is planted every year in the highlands, is of short staple, and feels more like wool than cotton. Every family appears to own a cotton patch, which is kept clear of weeds and grass. We saw the foreign growing at the Lake and in various places for 30 miles south of it, and about an equal number of miles below the cataracts on the Lower Shiré. Although the native cotton requires to be planted annually in the highlands, the people prefer it, because, they say, "it makes the stronger cloth." It was remarked to a number of intelligent natives near the Shiré lakelet, "You should plant plenty of cotton, and perhaps the English will come soon and buy it.” "Surely the country is full of cotton," said an elderly man, who was a trader and travelled much. Our own observations convinced us of the truth of this statement. Everywhere we saw it. Cotton patches of from 2 to 3 acres were seen abreast of the cataracts during the first trip, when Lake Tamandua was discovered, though in this journey, on a different route, none were observed of more than half an acre. They usually contained about a quarter of an acre each. There are extensive tracts on the level plains of both the Lower and Upper Shiré, where salt exudes from the soil. Sea island cotton might grow well there, as on these the foreign cotton becomes longer in the staple. The cotton-growers here never have their crops cut off by frosts. There are none. Both kinds of cotton require but little labour, none of that severe and killing toil requisite in the United States. The people are great cultivators of the soil, and it repays them well. All the inhabitants of a village, men, women, and children, and dogs, turn out at times to labour in the fields. The chief told us all his people were out hoeing, and we saw in other parts many busy at work. If a new piece of ground is to be cultivated, the labourer grasps as much of the tall dry grass as he conveniently can, ties it into a knot at the top, strikes his hoe through the roots, detaching them from the ground with some earth still adhering, which, with the knot, keeps the grass in a standing position. He proceeds in this way over the field. When this work is finished, the field exhibits a harvest-like appearance, being thickly dotted all over with these shocks, which are 3 feet high,